2024-03-28T11:25:26Zhttps://escholarship.org/oaioai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt7xv434vq2024-01-17T01:36:32Zqt7xv434vqUpdate to Lost Instruction Time in California SchoolsFlores, RamonLosen, Daniel J2024-01-08Many educators in California are unaware of just how harmful out of school suspensions can be. When suspended students are barred from attending school, more often than not, the rule broken was some form of minor misconduct. This update of "Lost Instruction Time in California Schools" demonstrates that despite the important efforts by the state of California to reduce suspensions, those efforts are seriously insufficient.school disciplinesuspensionsracial disparitieshomeless youthapplication/pdfCC-BY-NC-SAeScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/7xv434vqarticleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt5437259j2024-01-04T01:25:42Zqt5437259jNationwide Survey of State Education Agencies’ Online School Disciplinary Data Losen, Daniel J.2013-10-01UCLA Civil Rights Project’s Center for Civil Rights Remedies has collaborated with the Council of State Governments Justice Center (CSG Justice Center) to extract information from all 50 State Education Agency (SEA) websites and Washington, DC to compile publicly-reported school disciplinary data below. The findings are shown in the downloadable spreadsheet with summaries of student disciplinary data for each state. Information in the table was corroborated by SEA staff. Although most states offer additional data on disciplinary actions upon request, this web-based tool only uses data readily available to the public online.School Disciplinedisparitiesraceapplication/pdfCC-BY-NC-SAeScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/5437259jarticleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt0wq1s9822024-01-04T01:10:29Zqt0wq1s982Nationwide Survey of State Education Agencies’ Online School Disciplinary Data for Students with Disabilities Losen, Daniel J2014-07-01UCLA Civil Rights Project’s Center for Civil Rights Remedies has extracted information from all 50 State Education Agency (SEA) websites and Washington, DC to compile publicly-reported school disciplinary data below. The findings are shown in the downloadable spreadsheet with summaries of student disciplinary data for each state. Information in the table was corroborated by SEA staff. Although most states offer additional data on disciplinary actions upon request, this web-based tool only uses data readily available to the public online.school disciplineIndividuals with Disabilities Education ActRaceapplication/pdfCC-BY-NC-SAeScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/0wq1s982articleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt7td9r8gq2023-10-31T20:27:41Zqt7td9r8gqLost Instruction Time in California Schools: The Disparate Harm from Post-Pandemic Punitive SuspensionsFlories, Ramon TLosen, Daniel J2023-10-30What we don’t know about school discipline and discipline disparities may be hurting the very students who most need a stable school life. The consequences of a suspension can be grave for any child, but the potential for causing extreme harm to foster and homeless youth is rarely considered by educators who punish these children by removing them from school. The uncertain living circumstances for these children are further destabilized when educators deny them access to school for breaking a school rule. The data on lost instruction due to out-of-school suspensions (OSSs) show that students with precarious living situations—foster and homeless youth of all racial/ ethnic groups—are punished far more than most other groups. This report provides a detailed review of how suspensions directly contribute to disparities in learning opportunities for students in these two groups, and along the lines of race and disability in every California school district.school disciplineout of school suspensiondisparate harmsapplication/pdfCC-BYeScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/7td9r8gqarticleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt8kr718bx2022-08-02T20:18:09Zqt8kr718bxUnmasking School Discipline Disparities in California: What the 2019-2020 Data Can Tell Us About Problems and ProgressLosen, Daniel J, J.D.Goyal, ShuchiAlam, MahreenSalazar, Rogelio2022-07-01We hope this report will help to renew attention to the problem of excessive discipline. In keeping with this aim, we compare the projected full-year suspension rate for 2019-2020 to rates from prior years. We provide these projected suspension rates for the overall student population in California, and for every racial/ethnic subgroup at the state and district levels. We encourage education policymakers at the state and district levels to use the projections we provide in this report to distinguish districts that were on the path toward lower suspension rates from those on a path toward an increase or that showed no change.school suspensionexcessive disciplinediscipline policyracial disparitiesapplication/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/8kr718bxarticleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt2pw440h52021-04-02T21:54:47Zqt2pw440h5Disabling Inequity: The Urgent Need for Race-Conscious Resource RemediesLosen, Daniel J, JDMartinez, PaulRim Shin, Grace Hae2021-03-23Among the most critical pre-pandemic inequities that have not received sufficient attention is the fact that many districts are not meeting their legal and moral obligation to educate students with disabilities, which must include providing needed mental health services, behavioral supports and educationally sound interventions by well qualified staff. This report reveals serious pre-existing conditions of inadequate support that are likely to be exacerbated by the current pandemic, summarizes the pandemic’s disparate impact, which is resulting in greater losses of instructional time amidst increasing experiences of trauma, and argues for additional post-pandemic steps to ensure that all students with disabilities needing supports and services must receive a free appropriate public education (FAPE) to have those needs met, and that they are not excluded because of behaviors caused by their disability.school disciplinedisparities by disability status504traumareferrals to law enforcementpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/2pw440h5articleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt7hm2456z2020-10-15T16:41:49Zqt7hm2456zLost Opportunities: How Disparate School Discipline Continues to Drive Differences in the Opportunity to LearnLosen, Daniel J, JDMartinez, Paul2020-10-12school disciplinedisparitiesopportunity to learndiscipline disparitiesapplication/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/7hm2456zarticlen.a., vol n.a., iss n.a.oai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt1x66c4n22020-07-20T20:05:20Zqt1x66c4n2Is California Doing Enough to Close the School Discipline Gap?Losen, Daniel J.Martinez, Paul2020-06-22school disciplinesuspensionsracial disparitiesapplication/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/1x66c4n2articleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt50b4g9h12019-07-10T22:48:39Zqt50b4g9h1The Unequal Impact of Suspension on the Opportunity to Learn in CALosen, Daniel JMartin, Kacy2018-09-18In 2016-17, schoolchildren in California lost an estimated 763,690 days of instruction time, a figure based on the combined total of 381,845 in-school suspensions (ISS) and out-of-school suspensions (OSS). This is an updated report on CA suspension practice.school suspensionslost instructionapplication/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/50b4g9h1articleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt9d19p8wt2019-07-10T22:37:43Zqt9d19p8wtThe Striking Outlier: The Persistent, Painful and Problematic Practice of Corporal Punishment in SchoolsWhitaker, AmirLosen, Daniel J2019-06-11This report examines only the data (students populations and paddling incidents) from schools where corporal punishment is used. The report relies on data from the U.S. Department of Education's Civil Rights Data Collection (CRDC), primarily from the 2013-14 school year. In schools where corporal punishment is practiced, black students and students with disabilities are more likely to be struck than white students and those without disabilities.corporal punishmentspankingracial disparitiesapplication/pdfCC-BYeScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/9d19p8wtarticleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt5wh4x2762017-11-02T14:13:46Zqt5wh4x276Lost Instruction: The Disparate Impact of the School Discipline Gap in CaliforniaLosen, Daniel JWhitaker, Amir2017-10-24application/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/5wh4x276articleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt0x36s2wf2017-04-20T18:28:30Zqt0x36s2wfThe Hidden Cost of California's Harsh School DisciplineRumberger, Russell W.Losen, Daniel J.2017-03-08application/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/0x36s2wfarticleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt8fb9x11w2016-12-11T08:01:41Zqt8fb9x11wThe Costs of High School Failure and School Suspensions for the State of CaliforniaBelfield, Clive R2014-10-01application/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/8fb9x11warticleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt8cj0n19m2016-12-11T07:59:24Zqt8cj0n19mThe Economic Burden of High School Dropouts and School Suspensions in FloridaBelfield, Clive R2014-11-01application/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/8cj0n19marticleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt6n84676s2016-11-02T02:50:06Zqt6n84676sReducing Suspension among Academically Disengaged Black MalesToldson, Ivory AMcGee, TyneLemmons, Brianna P2013-04-06This chapter will address the excessive use of suspensions and other disciplinary actions against Black males who are disengaged from school. Academically disengaged students often come to school late, miss assignments, have difficulty understanding schoolwork, and may have attentional challenges or alternative learning styles. Black males can become disengaged from school for a variety of reasons, including being dissatisfied with school because of noninclusive curricula, racial biases, and poor relationships with teachers. In addition, some Black males are not socialized to the academic environment due to unclear and inconsistent messages about school from home and the community. Finally, some Black males have learning or attentional disabilities that are misunderstood or misdiagnosed. Research suggests that academically disengaged students account for the majority of all suspensions. This study will examine responses of students, parents and teachers who completed Monitoring the Future: A Continuing Study of American Youth. The chapter will clarify the relationship between suspensions and academic disengagement, and provide policy solutions for school leaders to develop strategies to reduce suspensions by providing a more inclusive and compassionate learning environment for Black males.application/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/6n84676sarticleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt6kw7w8s82016-11-02T02:49:56Zqt6kw7w8s8Dignity, Disparity and Desistance: Effective Restorative Justice Strategies to Plug the "School-to-Prison Pipeline"Schiff, Mara, Ph.D.2013-04-06School suspensions and expulsions resulting from zero tolerance disciplinary policies have directly expanded the “school-to-prison pipeline” while disproportionately and negatively affecting minority students. This paper reviews current research on zero tolerance, evidence for the effectiveness of restorative justice in schools as an alternative to punitive disciplinary policies, and local and national policy efforts to increase use of restorative practices in schools. The evidence shows that RJ is viable school policy strategy for keeping students in school while also useful for redefining the collaborative role of justice professionals and educators in the school setting to keep youth in school and out of juvenile justice systems.application/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/6kw7w8s8articleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt65x5j31h2016-11-02T02:49:47Zqt65x5j31hCharter Schools, Civil Rights and School Discipline: A Comprehensive ReviewLosen, Daniel JKeith, Michael A, IIHodson, Cheri LMartinez, Tia E2016-03-16This report, along with the companion spreadsheet, provides the first comprehensive description ever compiled of charter school discipline. In 2011-12, every one of the nation’s 95,000 public schools was required to report its school discipline data, including charter schools. This analysis, which includes more than 5,250 charter schools, focuses on out-of-school suspension rates at the elementary and secondary levels. The report describes the extent to which suspensions meted out by charter schools for each major racial group and for students with disabilities are excessive or disparate.application/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/65x5j31harticleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt35z7c5sh2016-11-02T02:49:39Zqt35z7c5shThe Effectiveness of School-wide Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports for Reducing Racially Inequitable Disciplinary Exclusions in Middle SchoolsVincent, Claudia GSprague, Jeffrey RGau, Jeff M2013-04-06We merged data on the extent to which middle schools implemented school-wide positive behavior interventions and supports (SWPBIS) with data on disciplinary exclusions occurring in those schools across a period of 3 years. We conducted descriptive and multivariate analyses of variance to examine if (a) SWPBIS can be implemented with fidelity in middle school settings, (b) SWPBIS implementation is associated with reductions in disciplinary inequity, and (c) changes in disciplinary inequity vary with the proportion of students from low socio-economic and non-White backgrounds. Analysis of intervention fidelity data indicated that schools implemented the core features of SWPBIS based on training and support provided. Based on descriptive outcomes SWPBIS implementation was associated with (a) overall lower rates of ISS, the least severe form of disciplinary exclusion; (b) overall high rates of truancy, especially for AI/AN and Hispanic students; (c) some reductions in disciplinary exclusions for Hispanic and AI/AN students, but few for African-American students; and (4) few increases in the durations of disciplinary exclusions. School-level demographic factors did not appear to impact racial/ethnic inequity in schools implementing SWPBIS. Based on our findings we suggest a number of recommendations, including focused research on integrating behavioral science and critical race theory, training SWPBIS implementers in disaggregating discipline data by student race/ethnicity and interpreting data patterns, increasing meaningful integration of non-White parents into SWPBIS implementation practices, and holding implementers accountable for promoting culturally responsive systems and practices.application/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/35z7c5sharticleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt8855x4xk2016-11-02T02:48:24Zqt8855x4xkExamining Disproportionality in School Discipline Practices for Native American Students in Canadian Schools Implementing PBISGreflund, SaraMcIntosh, KentMercer, Sterett HMay, Seth L2013-04-06The purpose of this exploratory study was to investigate the extent to which Canadian students with Aboriginal status (i.e., Native American students) receive disproportionate levels of Office Discipline Referrals (ODRs) and more severe administrative consequences relative to students without Aboriginal status. The participants were all 1750 students in five British Columbia and Alberta elementary and middle schools implementing PBIS, with adaptations to be more responsive to Aboriginal culture. Binary multilevel logistic regression was used to determine to what extent disproportionality was present. Contrary to hypotheses, Students with Aboriginal status were no more likely to receive ODRs than students without Aboriginal status. Students with Aboriginal status were more likely, but not statistically significantly more likely, to receive suspensions and harsh administrative consequences from ODRs. Potential factors for these encouraging findings include the small sample, the Canadian context, and implementation of PBIS with culturally responsive adaptations for students from Aboriginal cultures. Results are discussed with respect to how these findings may contribute to reducing disproportionate discipline for Native American students in the United States.application/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/8855x4xkarticleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt7zc0c1352016-11-02T02:46:51Zqt7zc0c135The Economic Effects of Exclusionary Discipline on Grade Retention and High School DropoutMarchbanks, Miner P, IIIBlake, Jamilia JBooth, Eric ACarmichael, DottieSeibert, Allison LFabelo, Tony2013-04-06Nearly 15% of students are disciplined in a given year, with 60% of students being disciplined at-least once between grades 7 through 12. The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of school discipline contact on students’ risk for grade retention and school dropout using a statewide sample of 7th grade students tracked through their 12th grade year. Results indicate that school discipline is associated with approximately 4,700 grade retentions per year in the state of Texas. The delayed workforce entry related to grade retention has an effect of over $68 million for the state, including $5.6 million in lost tax revenue. Given the higher discipline rate for minorities, these costs disproportionately affect them. Further, the additional year of instruction costs the state nearly $41 million dollars. For each year an individual student is retained the effect on the net social surplus exceeds $23,000. Results also indicate that school discipline relates to a 29% increase in high school dropout. These additional dropouts account for an economic effect of $711 million per year. It is recommended that educational agencies adopt evidenced-based programs that reduce school officials’ use of punitive and exclusionary measures to manage student behavior such as Positive Behavioral Intervention Supports. Further, these results underscore the need for school officials to employ secondary and tertiary dropout prevention programs that are targeted at the most academically and behaviorally at-risk students in schools in addition to primary prevention programs.application/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/7zc0c135articleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt9rw655w82016-11-02T02:46:07Zqt9rw655w8Disturbing Inequities: Exploring the Relationship Between Racial Disparities in Special Education Identification and DisciplineLosen, Daniel JHodson, CheriEe, JongyeonMartinez, Tia E2013-04-06Students with disabilities are entitled by law to receive special education, which includes individualized supports and services, including behavioral supports if needed, to help them succeed in school. So it is especially disturbing that nationally, in 2011-12, their out-of-school suspension rate for grades K-12 was more than twice as high as their nondisabled peers. They are also more likely than their non-disabled peers to be suspended repeatedly.2 Furthermore, in 2011-12, across K – 12, the rates were much higher for students with disabilities who were Black and male, with one out of every five having been suspended at least once. The data from different school levels (elementary, middle, and high) reveal even deeper disparities. For students with disabilities, the risk for suspension at the elementary school level is 4.1%. This rises to 19.3% at the secondary level.3 While students with disabilities are about twice as likely as their nondisabled peers to be suspended at each level, the 2 percentage point gap at the elementary level increases fivefold at the secondary level to a 10 percentage point gap. When we look at the intersection of race, disability, and gender at the secondary level, we find that 24% of Black secondary students, 31% of Black secondary school students with disabilities, and 36% of Black secondary school males with disabilities were suspended from school in 2009-2010. It is worth noting that these national averages mask even more extreme situations. For example, using U.S. Department of Education data for the 2009-2010 academic year, of the 1,136 U.S. school districts that have at least 50 Black males with disabilities, 211 had suspension rates for Black males with disabilities at the secondary level of over 50%. These are averages for large districts, which means there are individual schools in each of these high-suspending districts with even higher suspension rates.application/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/9rw655w8articleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt9dh9k3bq2016-11-02T02:45:59Zqt9dh9k3bqWhere Should We Intervene? Contributions of Behavior, Student, and School Characteristics to Suspension and ExpulsionSkiba, Russell JTrachok, MeganChung, Choong-GeunBaker, TimberlySheya, AdamHughes, Robin2013-04-06It has been widely documented that the characteristics of behavior, students, and schools all make a contribution to school discipline outcomes. The purpose of this study is to report on a multilevel examination of variables at these three levels to identify the relative contributions of type of behavior, student demographic variables, and school characteristics to rates of and racial disparities in out-of-school suspension and expulsion. Results indicated that variables at all three levels made a contribution to the odds of being suspended or expelled. Type of behavior and previous incidents at the behavioral level; race, gender and to a certain extent SES at the individual level; and percent Black enrollment, school achievement levels, and principal perspectives on discipline at the school level all made a contribution to the probability of out-of- school suspension or expulsion. For racial disparities in discipline, however, school level variables, including principal perspective on discipline, appear to be stronger predictors of disproportionality in suspension and expulsion than either behavioral or individual characteristics. These results indicate that school suspension and expulsion are not simply an inevitable result of student misbehavior, but are rather determined by a complex set of factors, including irrelevant factors such as race, and the school principal’s belief in the necessity of suspension and expulsion. For racial disparities in particular, these results suggest that a focus, in policy and practice, on changing characteristics of the way schools carry out discipline may be the course most likely to reduce inequity in school suspension and expulsion.application/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/9dh9k3bqarticleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt8mv1z75k2016-11-02T02:45:34Zqt8mv1z75kReconsidering the Alternatives: The Relationship between Suspension, Disciplinary Alternative School Placement, Subsequent Juvenile Detention, and the Salience of RaceVanderhaar, Judi E, Ph.D.Petrosko, Joseph M, Ph.DMuñoz, Marco A, Ed.D2013-04-06Alternative school settings for students who are identified as “disruptive or dangerous” are playing an increasingly prominent role in the world of public education, yet significant gaps in our understanding of their efficacy remain. Despite mounting use of disciplinary alternative schools, the vast majority of urban districts report that the demands for enrollment space outweigh the supply. While in theory these schools exist to provide alternative learning environments for students deemed too disruptive for mainstream schools, the evidence suggests that promoting this approach with little to no regulation is having grave unintended consequences for many students. The increasing demands for disciplinary alternative schools is indicative of the wider pervasive problems of detrimental school discipline policies, the criminalization of misbehavior and the exclusion and segregation of students based on race, poverty and disability in the educational system. This longitudinal investigation within a large school district serving 100,000 students examines multiple factors to determine how the risk of placement in the disciplinary alternative schools is systematically related to predictors and the risk of juvenile subsequent juvenile detention between 3rd and 12th grade. Results revealed that cumulatively, nearly 1 in 10 children entering 3rd grade experienced placement in a disciplinary alternative school by 12th grade. The racial gaps were pronounced as 13% of all African- American students in the cohort experienced placement compared to 4% of the White students. The risk of placement was greatest in 7th grade. Race, school mobility, grade retention, special education status, attendance, and out of school suspension were systematically related to the risk of placement in alternative school. African-American students were disproportionately represented among those suspended, placed in alternative school, and detained as juveniles. Half of the students placed in elementary experienced subsequent juvenile detention within less than four years, 43% of students placed in middle school were detained as juveniles within less than two years. These findings, based on a robust data set, highlight strong relationships between out of school suspensions, disciplinary alternative school placement, and subsequent juvenile detention that are most salient for African-American children, particularly those receiving free/reduced lunch. These relationships raise considerable doubts about the efficacy of a system that relies on out of school suspensions and disciplinary alternative schools as strategies reduce delinquency and provide support for children deemed disruptive or dangerous. The results strongly suggest that early warning systems connected to supportive early intervention strategies would produce better and more equitable outcomes in the short and long term than exclusionary discipline practices and policies.application/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/8mv1z75karticleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt85m2m6sj2016-11-02T02:45:23Zqt85m2m6sjThe High Cost Of Harsh Discipline And Its Disparate ImpactRumberger, Russell WLosen, Daniel J2016-06-01School suspension rates have been rising since the early 1970s, especially for children of color. One body of research has demonstrated that suspension from school is harmful to students, as it increases the risk of retention and school dropout. Another has demonstrated that school dropouts impose huge social costs on their states and localities, due to lost wages and taxes, increased crime, higher welfare costs, and poorer health. Although it is estimated that reducing school suspension rates in Texas would save the state up to $1 billion in social costs, only one study to date has linked these two bodies of research. The current study addresses some of the limitations of that study by (1) estimating a stronger causal model of the effects suspension has on dropping out of school, (2) calculating a more comprehensive set of the social costs associated with dropping out, and (3) estimating the cost of school suspensions in Florida and California, and for the U.S. as a whole. The results show that suspensions in 10th grade alone produced more than 67,000 dropouts in the U.S. and generated social costs to the nation of more than $35 billion. These results are undoubtedly conservative, since the California and U.S. estimates were limited to 10th-grade students, while the Florida estimates were limited to 9th-grade students. Thus, they did not capture the effects of suspensions in earlier grades.application/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/85m2m6sjarticleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt7wc935jg2016-11-02T02:44:56Zqt7wc935jgTowards Identifying School-level Factors Reducing Disciplinary Exclusions of American Indian/Alaska Native StudentsVincent, Claudia GPavel, Michael CHiXapkaidSprague, Jeffrey RTobin, Tary J2013-04-06Our study examined the relationship between the Native American community’s recommendations for improving outcomes for American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) students and school level practices in Oregon. We merged data on teacher practices from the 2009 National Indian Education Study (NIES) with data reflecting disciplinary exclusions. Our unweighted sample consisted of 40 elementary schools, 40 middle schools, <10 high schools, and 10 K-8/12 schools. Results indicated that the majority of teachers did not participate in recommended professional development nor did they integrate Native culture into instruction. Although correlations between participation in professional development and use of Native culture were significant, linear regression outcomes indicated no significant association between school level practices and disciplinary exclusion patterns of AI/AN students. Follow-up analyses of K-8/12 schools, which had the lowest rates of disciplinary exclusions for AI/AN students, indicated that greater AI/AN enrollment density was associated with lower out-of-school suspension rates. Based on our analyses and current efforts in Oregon to improve educational outcomes for AI/AN students we recommended greater emphasis on (a) disaggregating discipline data by student race, (b) meaningful collaboration between state departments of education and Native community leaders, (c) schools’ accountability for reaching out to Native parents and community members, and (d) sharing disaggregateddata with all relevant stakeholders.application/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/7wc935jgarticleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt4sq993qd2016-11-02T02:43:51Zqt4sq993qdSent Home and Put Off-Track: The Antecedents, Disproportionalities, and Consequences of Being Suspended in the Ninth GradeBalfanz, RobertByrnes, VaughanFox, Joanna2013-04-07This study is based upon a longitudinal analysis of data for a cohort of 181,897 Florida state students who were first time 9th graders in the 2000-01 school year and follows them trough to high school and post-secondary outcomes. Analysis of 9th grade suspension data finds that black students, students who are economically disadvantaged, and special education students are three demographics subgroups that are disproportionately suspended, both in the frequency of suspensions and the duration in number of school days lost. While poverty and ethnicity are themselves highly correlated, poverty alone does not explain the disproportionate suspension rates amongst black students. Further analyses show that out-of-school suspensions in the 9th grade year are also significantly and negatively correlated to later high school graduation as well as post-secondary enrollment and persistence. Thus demographic disparities in disciplinary incidents serve to further widen any academic achievement gaps. Closer analysis though shows though that disciplinary incidents are interrelated with other of indicators of student disengagement from school, such as course failures and absenteeism. Therefore, policies seeking to address these issues cannot focus on reducing suspensions alone, but must also address student attendance and course passing in a comprehensive and systematic manner.application/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/4sq993qdarticleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt4pw0d5n82016-11-02T02:43:40Zqt4pw0d5n8Misbehavior, Suspensions, and Security Measures in High School: Racial/Ethnic and Gender DifferencesFinn, Jeremy DServoss, Timothy J2013-04-06This study used merged data from three national surveys to address questions about security measures in American high schools, suspension rates, and student misbehavior. First, the study identified the characteristics of schools that implemented the most extreme security measures and those with the highest levels of discipline. Second, the study used data on individual students to examine misbehavior and race and gender disparities in suspensions not attributable to misbehavior. The main findings were: (1) In-school suspensions serve a ‘gateway’ function with regard to out-of-school suspensions. They may provide a time and place to address behavior problems before they escalate or disproportionate out-of-school suspensions before they occur; (2) Out-of-school suspensions were more frequent among schools in higher-crime neighborhoods. Thus students suspended may be relegated to an environment not conducive to positive educational or social outcomes; (3) African-American students and Hispanic/Latino students were suspended at higher rates than were non-Hispanic whites, differences in most cases not attributable to different levels of misbehavior; (4) Overall, males were more likely to be suspended than were females, an effect above and beyond that explained by differences in behavior. There was little or no difference in the suspension rates of black males and females, however; (5) High degrees of school security were associated with increased suspension rates and increased black – white disparities in total suspensions. At the same time, most black students were enrolled in schools with high degrees of security; (6) Black males were suspended at higher and higher rates as school size increased.All of these have implications for school policy and practice. These are discussed in the paper together with limitations of the investigation.application/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/4pw0d5n8articleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt46c8z6z22016-11-02T02:43:30Zqt46c8z6z2A Mixed Methods Approach Examining Disproportionality in School DisciplineFenning, PamelaPigott, ThereseEngler, ElizabethBradshaw, KatieGamboney, ElizabethGrunewald, StephanieHaque, TamannaFlannery, K. BrigidKato, Mimi McGrath2013-04-06Based on analysis of discipline referrals for infractions and the content of written discipline policies as part of a larger study of Schoolwide Positive Behavior Support (SWPBS) at the high school level, we argue that district-administered school discipline policies need to be better aligned with prevention-oriented practices, such as SWPBS and must integrate alternatives to suspension, particularly for minor behaviors, such as tardies. SWPBS focuses on teaching expected behaviors to the entire student population, but our findings are that these practices are not aligned with discipline policies, even in schools that received professional development and technical assistance in SWPBS implementation as part of a larger funded project.Hierarchical linear modeling techniques indicated that, on the average, African-American and Latino(a) students and males in our sample were the most likely to generate discipline referrals to the office across the ten high schools that were included in the analyses. These findings were consistent for three years (2008-2009; 2009-2010 and 2010-2011) of discipline referrals analyzed. Statistical variation was found across schools in ethnic and gender disproportionality in referrals. However, the school level variables of SWPBS implementation status or type of discipline policy (punitive or proactive) did not account for this variation.Because the discipline policies for each school were categorized as punitive, regardless of the degree of SWPBS implementation, we argue that in order for multi-tiered systems of support, such as SWPBS to be effective, formally adopted discipline policies need to align with these practices. At the high school level, SWPBS requires additional time to implement and the foundational of district-level buy-in to the effort must be evident formally as well as informally.application/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/46c8z6z2articleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt2x35t1tf2016-11-02T02:42:44Zqt2x35t1tfDiscipline and Participation: The Long-Term Effects of Suspension and School Security on the Political and Civic Engagement of YouthKupchik, AaronCatlaw, Thomas J2013-04-06In this study we use the National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent Health (Add Health) dataset to evaluate the long-term influence of school discipline and security on political and civic participation. We find that young adults with a history of suspension in school are less likely than others to vote and volunteer in civic activities after high school, suggesting that suspension negatively impacts the overall likelihood that youth will engage in future political and civic activities. Though Black and Hispanic students suffer negative long-term effects of school suspension far more frequently than others, the results suggest that the intensity of the effect of suspension is consistent across racial/ethnic groups. Overall, these findings are consistent with prior theory and research highlighting the long-term negative implications of punitive disciplinary policies and the salient role schools play in preparing youth to participate in a democratic polity as adults. We conclude that suspension, in particular, is anti-democratic insofar in that it substitutes the exclusion and physical removal of students for dialogue and collaborative problem-solving. The research lends empirical grounds for recommending the concrete reform of school governance and the implementation of more constructive models of discipline.application/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/2x35t1tfarticleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt2mx8c60x2016-10-25T20:57:51Zqt2mx8c60xWhat Conditions Jeopardize and Support Safety in Urban Schools? The Influence of Community Characteristics, School Composition and School Organizational Practices on Student and Teacher Reports of Safety in ChicagoSteinberg, Matthew PAllensworth, ElaineJohnson, David W2013-04-06School safety is a pressing issue in urban schools. Yet, there is little research that shows why schools vary in safety and whether school practices mediate the influence of neighborhood characteristics. Using a unique dataset on Chicago Public Schools, this study examines the internal and external conditions associated with students’ and te achers’ reports of safety, showing that factors under the school’s control – their social and organizational structure – mediate the external influences of crime, poverty, and human resources in students’ residential communities. In particular, the quality of relationships between school staff, students and parents define safe schools in Chicago. In contrast, frequent use of suspensions is associated with less safe environments, even when comparing schools serving students with similar backgrounds. The findings from this paper point to the important role that school leaders and personnel can play in fostering safe school environments for students, even in schools that serve students from disadvantaged neighborhoods. Policymakers should attend to the important influence of supportive, collaborative relationships among teachers and parents, and between teachers and students, for mediating the adverse influences of neighborhood circumstances on student and teacher reports of safety.application/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/2mx8c60xarticleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt18h2929c2016-10-25T20:55:55Zqt18h2929cStudent Threat Assessment as a Method of Reducing Student SuspensionsCornell, Dewey, Ph.D.Lovegrove, Peter, Ph.D.2013-04-06This paper presents two studies of the Virginia Student Threat Assessment Guidelines, which is a systematic method for schools to respond to student threats of violence without resorting to zero tolerance suspension. The first study reports secondary analyses from a randomized controlled trial which previously reported that students attending schools using the Virginia Guidelines were less likely to receive a long-term suspension (Odds Ratio = .35) than students attending control group schools using a zero tolerance approach (Cornell, Allen, & Fan, 2012). The secondary analyses found no difference in the impact on White versus Black students, which means that both racial groups benefitted from the intervention. The second study examined the scaled-up implementation of the Virginia Guidelines in Virginia public schools using a retrospective, quasi-experimental design. Schoolwide annual suspension rates were compared in 971 schools that chose to adopt the Virginia Guidelines versus 824 schools not using the Virginia Guidelines. Use of the Virginia Guidelines was associated with a 19% reduction in the number of long-term suspensions and an 8% reduction in the number of fewer short-term suspensions schoolwide during the 2010-2011 school year. Length of implementation was associated with greater reductions in suspensions. Schools with formal training in the Virginia Guidelines had greater reductions than schools that adopted them without formal training. There was not a significant interaction between use of the Virginia Guidelines and minority composition of the school, which means that schools of different racial composition demonstrated similar reductions. In conclusion, the two studies support use of the Virginia Guidelines as a promising approach for reducing suspension rates.application/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/18h2929carticleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt0d4807x32016-10-25T20:54:25Zqt0d4807x3Racial Disparities in School Suspension and Subsequent Outcomes: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997Shollenberger, Tracey L2013-04-06Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997, I examine the prevalence and intensity of suspension among nationally representative samples of white, black, and Hispanic youth attending secondary school during the late 1990s and follow their educational and criminal justice outcomes for roughly a decade after K-12. Consistent with prior research in individual states and districts, I find that suspension has become a common feature of the U.S. schooling experience, affecting more than one in three youth and resulting in substantial missed instructional time across K-12 (a total of one to two weeks for the typical suspendee). As with prior research, disparities by race and gender are large, with black boys suspended most frequently and most intensely: fully two in three are suspended at some point during K-12, and nearly one in five is suspended for a full month of school or more. Following youth into early adulthood, I find that suspension is highly correlated with negative educational and criminal justice outcomes in the longer term. Among boys suspended for 10 total days or more, less than half had obtained a high school diploma by their late 20s; more than three in four had been arrested; and more than one in three had been sentenced to confinement in a correctional facility. Comparing suspension to self- reported behavior – including property offenses and violent behaviors – reveals that substantial shares of suspended youth had not engaged in serious delinquency by the time they were first suspended from school. In addition, racial and ethnic gaps in suspension persist after these serious misbehaviors are controlled. In light of these findings, policymakers interested in improving educational outcomes for all youth, ensuring equity across racial and ethnic groups, and increasing public safety should promote alternatives to suspension, identify and support schools with high rates of exclusionary discipline, and fund evaluations of recent efforts to limit the use of suspension and reduce racial disparities in districts across the U.S.application/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/0d4807x3articleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt0c39d30h2016-10-25T20:53:38Zqt0c39d30hResearchers Responses to Critiques of Our Study, "Charter Schools, Civil Rights and School Discipline: A Comprehensive Report."Losen, Daniel J.2016-10-01application/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/0c39d30harticleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt2d18x1jb2016-06-07T19:39:47Zqt2d18x1jbMaking Education Work for Latinas in the U.S.Gándara, PatriciaOseguera, LeticiaPérez Huber, LindsayLocks, AngelaEe, JongyeonMolina, Daniel2013-12-01In California, almost 40% of European American adults hold a BA degree, as do 23% of African Americans and 48% of Asians. However, only 11% of adult Latinas/os hold a BA degree or higher. Given that the majority of the school age population in the state is now Latina/o, this undereducation is not just an urgent problem, but foreshadows economic disaster for California. LatinasCollege Completionapplication/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/2d18x1jbarticleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt65w0k9tm2015-12-08T22:24:09Zqt65w0k9tmClosing the School Discipline Gap in California: Signs of ProgressLosen, Daniel J.Keith, Michael A., IIHodson, Cheri L.Martinez, Tia E.Belway, Shakti2015-11-23This report describes the most current state and district suspension rates, and covers both trends and racial disparities in the use of suspension in California. A spreadsheet accompanying this report enables any reader to find their own district’s most recent disaggregated data, as well as three- year trends for out-of-school suspensions, all of which can be compared to other districts in California. We hope that policymakers in the state and across the nation will take note of the state- and district-level progress, and of the large disparities indicating that a great deal more effort is warranted.School disciplinedisparitiessuspensionapplication/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/65w0k9tmarticleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt2t36g5712015-12-08T22:23:56Zqt2t36g571Are We Closing the School Discipline Gap?Losen, Daniel J.Hodson, Cheri L.Keith II, Michael AMorrison, KatrinaBelway, Shakti2015-02-23During the 2011-12 school year, nearly 3.5 million public school students were suspended out-of-school at least once. This report examines data on out-of-school suspension rates in every school district in the country and also examines on data on out-of-school suspension rates at the state and national levels. It documents disparities in the use of out-of-school suspension experienced by students with disabilities, and those from historically disadvantaged racial, ethnic, and gender subgroups. At the district level, on average more than one in every ten elementary students and at least one out of every four secondary students enrolled were suspended in 2011-12. Nationally, suspension rates are three to four times higher at the secondary level than at the elementary level. An examination of the racial and gender disparities among secondary students with disabilities shows that males, and most often Black males (33.8%), have the highest risk for suspension, followed by Latino males (23.2%). Also important to note is that Black females with disabilities are suspended at higher rates than White males with disabilities—22.5% and 16.2%, respectively. These disparities extend beyond the vast loss of instruction time experienced by students who are suspended. A school or school district’s excessive use of exclusionary discipline raises alarms because of the negative impact high suspension rates have on graduation rates, the learning environment, and rates of juvenile crime and delinquency in the larger community. Suggestions for remedies are also detailed.out-of-school suspensionsstudents with disabilitiesdiscipline gapschool-to-prison pipelineexclusionary disciplineapplication/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/2t36g571articleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt8pd0s08z2015-08-27T02:01:52Zqt8pd0s08zOut of School and Off Track: The Overuse of Suspensions in American Middle and High SchoolsLosen, Daniel JMartinez, Tia E2013-04-08Given the recent research showing that being suspended even once in ninth grade is associated with a twofold increase in the likelihood of dropping out, from 16% for those not suspended to 32% for those suspended just once (Balfanz, 2013), the high number of students suspended, as presented in this report, should be of grave concern to all parents, educators, taxpayers, and policymakers.We are publishing this report because of the serious academic implications these statistics have for students who attend schools with high suspension rates. We believe greater awareness will help produce more effective approaches that create safe, healthy, and productive learning environments, which research indicates is best accomplished without resorting to frequent out-of-school suspensions. done well, efforts to reduce suspensions should also improve graduation rates, achievement scores, and life outcomes, while also decreasing the rate of incarceration for juveniles and adults.The findings of this report also highlight critical civil rights concerns related to the high frequency of secondary school suspensions. We focus on secondary schools because children of color and students from other historically disadvantaged groups are far more likely than other students to be suspended out of school at this level. Our prior report, released in August 2012, looked only at K-12 suspension rates across the entire grade span and contained no new analysis at the secondary school level. While the racial discipline gap has always been largest in middle schools and high schools, it has grown dramatically at the secondary level since the early 1970s.Our new analysis of the secondary school data shows disparate increases in suspension rates by race when compared to data from the 1970s…disciplinesuspensionsmiddle schoolhigh schoolapplication/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/8pd0s08zarticleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt3687h8gz2015-08-27T02:01:42Zqt3687h8gzKeeping California's Kids in SchoolLosen, Daniel JMartinez, Tia EOkelola, Valerie2014-06-10Recently the California Department of Education released new data on school discipline. This report compares this year’s data release covering 2012-13 to the data released last year covering 2011-12. We find a reduction in the use of out-of-school suspension for every racial/ethnic group. Specifically, based on the statewide averages for 2011-2012 and 2012-2013, progress was made for every racial/ethnic subgroup toward reducing the rate of out-of-school suspensions (OSS) per 100 students enrolled from the prior year.The reduction in state averages suggest that some progress has been made toward reducing the reliance on out-of- school suspensions and the racial gap in disciplinary exclusion is narrowing in California. This report only provides a summary of some of the more significant state and district level improvements. disciplinesuspensionscaliforniaapplication/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/3687h8gzarticleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt99v051v12015-03-01T20:53:57Zqt99v051v1Opportunities Suspended: The Devastating Consequences of Zero Tolerance and School DisciplineThe Civil Rights Project2000-06-15The authors used data from the Civil Rights Data Collection (CRDC), federal biennial K-12 student suspension data from 2009-2010, to analyze and compare rates of suspension for nearly half of the nation’s school districts, broken down by race and ethnicity. For each of the nearly 7,000 districts and each of the 50 states, they further examined differences in suspension by comparing the rates of students with disabilities with their non-disabled peers. Additionally, the authors analyzed data on the extent to which students are repeatedly suspended in the same school year. They also highlighted the highest suspending districts for each racial group and disaggregated data on the nation’s largest districts, with an added analysis of gender disparities as they intersect with race and disability status. National level findings show that 17% of Black school children in K-12 grades were suspended at least once and that after combining racial groups, 13% of students with disabilities were suspended. At the state level, Black students had the highest suspension rate in most states; however White students had the highest rate in Montana. At the district level, male students of color with disabilities had suspension rates higher than 33% in some of the largest districts. Authors make recommendations to different constituents, suggesting that policymakers make classroom management part of teacher evaluations, educators seek changes to school policies where suspension rates are high and researchers conduct cost/benefit analyses of frequent use of out of school suspensions.school disciplinesuspensionsschool-to-prison pipelineexclusionstudents with disabilitiesCivil Rights Data Collectionapplication/pdfCC-BY-SAeScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/99v051v1non_textualoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt3g36n0c32013-02-14T18:44:54Zqt3g36n0c3Opportunities Suspended: The Disparate Impact of Disciplinary Exclusion from SchoolLosen, Daniel J.Gillespie, Jonathan2012-08-07The first in an ongoing series of national studies by the Center for Civil Rights Remedies at the Civil Right Project.Foreward by Gary OrfieldAlso available at http://civilrightsproject.ucla.eduData and data descriptions avaiable in supplementary materials.school suspensioninequalityinjusticeapplication/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/3g36n0c3articleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt8fh0s5dv2013-02-12T19:37:55Zqt8fh0s5dvSuspended Education: Urban Middle Schools in CrisisLosen, Daniel J.Skiba, Russell J.2010-09-13In order to better understand the issues of efficacy and fairness in the use of out-of-school suspension, we first must answer two questions: How frequently is suspension being used in our schools? Are there significant differences in the frequency of suspension when we look at subgroups of children by race/ethnicity and gender? This report, published by the Southern Poverty Law Center with research by CRP Senior Law and Education Policy Associate Daniel Losen and Indiana University Professor Russell Skiba, is designed to help answer these questions.Article can also be found at: http://civilrightsproject.ucla.educriminal justicemiddle schoolapplication/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/8fh0s5dvarticleoai:escholarship.org:ark:/13030/qt9148d09q2013-02-12T19:30:17Zqt9148d09qSuspended Education in CaliforniaLosen, Daniel J.Martinez, TiaGillespie, Jon2012-04-10The Civil Rights Project has been examining out-of-school suspensions since 1999 due to concerns about the frequency of suspensions, observed racial disparities in their systemic use and the possible negative impact, especially for children of color. Most important, a robust study of school discipline by the Council of State Governments tracked every middle school student in Texas over 6 years and has helped educators crystalize what the evidence has always suggested: that the frequent use of out-of-school suspensions has no academic benefits, is strongly associated with low achievement, a heightened risk for dropping out and a greater likelihood of juvenile justice involvement. If suspending a student out-of-school for minor infractions is a counterproductive educational response, logic dictates that it should be reserved as a measure of last resort. Unfortunately, education policy makers and parents are not fully aware of just how many students are at risk for being suspended.For the first time, this report and companion spreadsheet covering nearly 500 districts reveals to the public the unusually high levels of risk for suspension as well as the stark differences in discipline when these risks are presented by race, gender and disability status. The alarming findings suggest not only a hidden crisis for many historically disadvantaged subgroups in too many districts but also a widespread need to reform discipline policy for California’s public schools.Data released from the Office for Civil Rights (OCR) at the US Department of Education revealed that more than 400,000 students were suspended out-of-school at least one time during the 2009-10 school year in California. That’s enough students suspended out-of-school to fill every seat in all the professional baseball and football stadiums in the state, with no guarantee of any adult supervision. OCR collected data from districts on the number of students who were suspended just once during the year and the number suspended more than once. The analysis in this report combined these two mutually exclusive categories in order to report the number of students suspended one or more times as a percentage of their total enrollment. We describe this percentage throughout this report as the “risk” for suspension...This article and the associated data can also be found at http://civilrightsproject.ucla.eduschool to prison pipelinecriminal justiceCaliforniaapplication/pdfpubliceScholarship, University of Californiahttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/9148d09qarticle