Jade is a general term for two distinct minerals – jadeite and nephrite. There is no evidence yet of nephrite exploitation by the ancient Maya, so in this work “jade” is used interchangeably with “jadeite.” Previous research provided evidence about the use and significance of jade for the ancient Maya, both in elite and non-elite contexts. New discovery of an exquisitely carved T-shape jade pendant, with an inscribed wind glyph on the front side and hieroglyphic text on the back at the site of Nim li Punit in Belize, has demonstrated that almost no attention has been paid to this type of artifact in the literature. Therefore, this study has two major purposes: (1) to investigate the meanings of T-shape jade pendants and ornaments in the Maya area, (2) to demonstrate that a T-shaped Ik’ wind glyph, one of the key symbols appearing from the Preclassic to Postclassic narrative in the Maya region, attests to an “international” pan-Mesoamerican tradition. I approach this problematic employing the semiotic analysis and a theory of inalienable possessions in order to talk about the wind sign production, communication, and meaning. I state that the jade pendant from Nim li Punit is an example of a pan-Mesoamerican tradition of the wind symbolism that originated in a form of jade spoons and wind god veneration from the Gulf Coast; Costa Rican jade clam pendants and avian imagery; and is analogous to Highland Mexican shell pendants, semantically linked to the wind deity Quetzalcoatl.

How leaders persuade or coerce others to accept subordinate status and how social inequality becomes institutionalized are topics of persistent interest among social scientists concerned with early social complexity. In order to approach these topics, my research builds on the dual-processual model developed by Blanton and colleagues who distinguish two contrasting strategies of social control, network and corporate. In addition, I go further and explore the material correlates of these contrasting power strategies. I argue that a comparative study of architecture, associated activities, and the distribution of artifacts is needed to study the emergence and development of Maya chiefdoms in Belize and beyond.

Therefore, in my dissertation, I assess the range of power strategies employed by leaders and chiefly elites at Cahal Pech, Belize to obtain, enhance and legitimize their power over others throughout the Middle Preclassic period (1100-350 B.C.). The Middle Preclassic presents a crucial time period for the rising and institutionalization of social inequalities in the Maya lowlands. Cahal Pech is one of the few sites in this area of Mesoamerica that offers the opportunity to document long trajectories of social change. This Maya center has a lengthy, continuous, and well-documented occupation spanning approximately two thousand years (1100/1000 B.C. - A.D. 1000).

As my dissertation reveals, social differentiation arose at Cahal Pech during the second part of the Cunil phase (1100-900 B.C.) when valuable resources were already becoming restricted in their use. The transition between egalitarian and chiefdom political formations occurred at some moment during the early facet of the Kanluk phase (900-600 B.C.). At that time, ranking developed from the manipulation and integration of economic and ideological sources of power. Chiefdom political formation developed further in the second part of the late facet of the Kanluk phase (600-300 B.C.), when the elites extended their social control over more resources and towards the periphery of the site. As my dissertation shows, many of the political and economic dynamics associated with the Late Preclassic and Classic periods in the Maya lowlands were already in place in regions that would later be considered peripheral, including western Belize.

This thesis seeks to develop a ceramic chronology of the site of Lubaantun, Belize. The material analyzed was recovered by TRIP archaeologists and spans all occupational periods of the site. Because the site was occupied for less than two centuries, the uniformity in the ceramic material recovered precludes the material being divided beyond the singular Columbia Complex. Nonetheless, based on the subtle shifts in vessel form and decoration, as well as the introduction of two new types during the Terminal Classic, the Columbia Complex has been divided into an early and late facet. Based on these differences, I argue that connections with the southern Peten waned during the Terminal Classic, and the residents of Lubaantun were forced to seek exchange ties elsewhere, particularly to the north. These results hint at a shifting economic and political landscape during the Terminal Classic, and have important implications for studying the interregional connections between sites in the Southern Belize Region.

355 obsidian artifacts from Guadalupe, a Cocal Period (AD 1000 to 1530) site on the north coast of Honduras, were subjected to chemical analysis using a portable X-Ray fluorescence device. I used multivariate analyses to determine the raw material from which each artifact was produced, with a discussion of the implications for contacts with other parts of Mesoamerica. The majority of the assemblage was composed of Güinope obsidian, a low-quality Honduran source frequently found in small cobbles. The organization of production at Guadalupe was assessed through a technological analysis. It was determined that prismatic blades were produced onsite using Güinope obsidian, the first evidence for blade production using this raw material. To make use of small cobbles, initial core shaping was done through cortex-grinding and decortication flakes. The platforms were ground, and flakes were struck using hand-held techniques. In addition, formal tools and complete prismatic blades were imported of La Esperanza (Honduran) and Ixtepeque (Guatemalan) obsidian. A causal industry of Güinope, La Esperanza, and Otumba (Mexican) obsidian is also present. The inhabitants of Guadalupe adapted foreign technologies to local conditions and materials, a common occurrence in Lower Central American archaeology.

ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION

Before the Fall: Social Organization during the Classic Period at Nim li Punit, Toledo District, Belize

The longue durée perspective afforded by archaeology allows us to explore the full trajectory of early state-level societies, from their initial formation and expansion through to their collapse, and, in some cases, reorganization and reconstitution. My work focuses on an understudied portion of this process—the moments leading up to collapse and abandonment—and explores the effects of state-level collapse at the site of Nim li Punit, an ancient Maya center in the Southern Belize Region (SBR). I attempt to answer the following research question: in what ways do the processes of state-level collapse, abandonment, and transformation affect the social organization and distribution of political and economic power across a major center in the SBR?

My research is targeted at generating data to understand the heterarchical and hierarchical organization of architectural groups at Nim li Punit, and how they expressed power and status directly preceding the moment of desertion. Using 3D modeling techniques, I document the life history of two platforms: Structure 6 from the South Group and Structure 50 from the West Group. My subsurface excavations and artifact analyses expand on the broader archaeological topics of shared regional identity, long-distance and short-range exchange networks, regional control over raw material sources, the distribution of local and foreign goods, the mobilization of labor, and the ideology and symbolism connected with Maya kingship.

The results of my work show that the final decades of site occupation in the Terminal Classic (AD 790-850) was a dynamic period filled with drastic changes across political, economic, and social life. I connect this data from a Mesoamerican frontier center to a broader anthropological discussion of social life during and beyond collapse.