Projections of future climate are sensitive to the representation of upper-ocean diurnal variability, including the diurnal cycle of winds. Two different methods suitable for time series with missing data are used here to characterize how observed diurnal winds vary over the year. One is based on diurnal composites of mooring data, and the other is based on harmonic analysis via a least squares fit and is able to isolate annual (i.e., 1 cycle per year) modulation of diurnal variability. Results show that the diurnal amplitude in meridional winds is larger than in zonal winds and peaks in the tropical Pacific, where diurnal variability in zonal winds is overall weaker compared to other basins. Furthermore, the amplitude and phasing of diurnal winds in the tropical oceans are not uniform in time, with overall larger differences through the year in the meridional component of tropical winds. Estimating the annual modulation of the diurnal signal implies resolving both the diurnal energy peak and also the modulation of this peak by the annual cycle. This leads to a recommendation for sampling at least 6 times per day and for a duration of at least 3 years.

Strengths and weakness of remotely sensed winds are discussed, along with the current capabilities for remotely sensing winds and stress. Future missions are briefly mentioned. The observational needs for a wide range of wind and stress applications are provided. These needs strongly support a short list of desired capabilities of future missions and constellations.