The paper traces the historical unfolding of the Islamization strategy during Mubarak’s reign. It examines and compares the practices constituting this strategy and the State’s reaction to it. The relational approach adopted in this study gives weight to structured agency through analyzing how ideational and organizational levels interact. It evaluates the political efficacy of counter-hegemony as a political strategy, bringing to the forefront its practical, as well as its theoretical limitations.

Photon spin has received great interest in the recent decades for many applications such as encoding quantum information and spin-filtering. However, very little is known about controlling the direction and properties of the spin. It was recently found that surface waves with evanescent tails possess an inherent in-plane transverse spin which is dependent on the propagation direction.

In this dissertation, we investigate different 1D, 2D and 3D designs that support strong spin-dependent propagation. Starting with a 1D C-shaped waveguide, we show that the spin-density can be enhanced through dipole-to-dipole coupling resulting in highly directional wave propagation. We then show spin-dependent wave splitting in 2D metasurface by engineering the equifrequency contours. We demonstrate the possibility of steering the surface wave along curved paths. We also introduce a new type of surface wave called a chiral surface wave which has two transverse spins, an in-plane one that is inherent to any surface wave and an out-of-plane spin which is enforced by the design due to strong $x$-to-$y$ coupling and broken rotational symmetry. We show that the two transverse spins are locked to the momentum providing a highly confined spin-dependent propagation. Similar chiral modes can be induced in 3D structures by introducing screw dislocation defect in a diamond photonic crystal.

Our study opens a new direction for enhancing and controlling the spin properties of electromagnetic waves through engineering the symmetry of shapes in 1D, 2D and 3D. This provides an additional degree of freedom to control the propagation direction as well as the transverse spin of electromagnetic waves.

The dissertation explains why similar coup-installed regimes in Egypt (1952), Iran (1921), and Turkey (1923) developed along different political trajectories (authoritarianism, royal absolutism, and democracy, respectively). While most studies of regime change tend to underline popular forces, I demonstrate that these changes cannot be fully comprehended without a grasp of the shifting power balance within the ruling bloc. I argue that these divergent paths were determined by the ensuing power struggle between the military, security, and political institutions. A thorough comparative and historical examination of the critical junctures that marked the path of this unfolding power relation reveals that the ultimate dominance of the security establishment created an authoritarian police state in Egypt; the dominance of the political apparatus in Iran produced a monarchy vulnerable to overthrow from below; and the dominance of the military allowed enough space for a limited yet expanding democracy to develop in Turkey.

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Clinical trial registration