The COVID-19 pandemic heightened the interest in particle-laden turbulent jets generated by breathing, talking, coughing, and sneezing, and how these can contribute to disease transmission. Predicting the transport distance of the expelled droplets remains a critical, and still open, question. In the first segment of my work, I study the effect of ejection geometry and environmental boundary conditions on the transport of water density-matched particles. The study of particle transport from a canonical jet geometry illustrates the influence of secondary flows from the environmental boundary conditions (e.g. thermal gradients and wall effects) on particle dispersal. Subsequent experiments on the particle transport from a repeatable cough generator reveal that vortex structures created by the mouth and tongue structure have a large role in dispersal, due to the ejection of particles from regions of high vorticity.

In the second segment of my work, I study bubbly flows, in which the dispersed and carrier fluid phases are reversed. This flipped density ratio causes bubbles to accumulate in regions of high vorticity. Bubble transport is studied in the context of flow over a cylinder, for which the induced vibration is an important design consideration in devices from flow meters to nuclear reactors. While past researchers have shown that introducing bubbles to the flow can decrease vibration amplitude while increasing shedding frequency, the nonlinear shift in shedding frequency with bubble size has not been explained. Through experimental and numerical study of size-dependent bubble transport, I provide insight into the mechanismcausing this change in shedding frequency.

The study of both projects in tandem allows for the exploration of the effect of preferential accumulation/ejection on dispersed multiphase transport. In addition to complementary flow behaviour, the study of interchanged dispersed/carrier phases necessitates the development of highly specialized measurement techniques. I hope that the methods developed in this work see increased use in literature when developing validation datasets, as I look to challenge some of the common assumptions made in existing multiphase transport studies. A common theme through both projects is that typically second-order effects (e.g. spanwise velocity differences) have a significant influence on dispersed multiphase transport. As dispersed multiphase transport draws increased research interest, I hope that this work illustrates that (until proven otherwise) the collective understanding of the dominant mechanisms that exist for the single phase flow do not necessarily apply to multiphase transport.

Flow visualization methods are as old as the study of fluid dynamics, yet there remain major limitations to the types of flows these laboratory methods can measure. In particular, flows with numerous moving refractive interfaces and flows with opaque fluids or environments are all difficult or impossible to measure with conventional optical methods. A wide range of important fluid flows have one or more of these characteristics, including suspensions, bubbly flows, and scalar mixing flows. X-ray image-based particle velocimetry can overcome many of the limitations of optical methods, but has remained difficult to implement in a laboratory setting. This dissertation presents work on the development of X-ray particle velocimetry in the laboratory, with the hope of vastly increasing the accessibility and applicability of these techniques. Additionally, this dissertation presents a study on vitrification thermodynamics using X-ray image-based measurement techniques to demonstrate the broad applicability of said techniques.

New developments in laboratory X-ray imaging have the power to reveal interesting physics in a variety of fields by enabling researchers to see what they once could not. This dissertation hopes to demonstrate the utility of these techniques and inspire new ones.

This thesis addresses the influence of superhydrophobic material on bubble dynamics within a bubble column and simulated nuclear fuel cell channels through the use of X-ray Computed Tomography and iterative reconstruction algorithms. Pressurized water reactors operate in a single-phase flow. Localized nucleation sites arise to promote convectional heat transfer to the bulk liquid. During an event of flow loss or any condition that can result in bulk liquidtemperatures exceeding saturation temperatures, bubbles will form more frequently, creating a boiling casualty called Departure from Nucleate Boiling. A Departure from Nucleate Boiling condition results from the bulk liquid temperature reaching and exceeding Critical Heat Flux. If a superhydrophobic-coated material is introduced into a fuel cell assembly, the vapor bubbles will show an affinity to the air layer in these coatings and therefore escape faster from the flow regime, resulting in a larger margin to reach Critical Heat Flux. This evaluation is made based on our findings using only an air and liquid mixture with similar characterization to vapor bubbles that would be found in a saturated system. Additionally, bubble column reactors rely on bubbly flow to promote mixing to meet chemical requirements for their applications. Superhydrophobic internals may modify the bubble regime to promote larger mixing with minimal changes in superficial gas velocity. The bubble dynamics that arise from dispersed bubble flow to slug flow can be measured by its void fraction. A superhydrophobic surface will enable bubbles to escape faster to the surface and therefore result in a void fraction value that remains lower as compared to void fraction conditions without superhydrophobic coated internals. With higher multiphase flow rates, these techniques become complex and difficult to measure. Advanced measurement techniques are required to measure void fraction in these partially opaque systems. Our findings suggests that lower void fractions are achievable with a modification of surface wall characteristics to promote superhydrophobicity. Additionally, superhydrophobic coatings do promote a transition to churn-turbulent flow without any modification to superficial gas velocity or bubble column dimensions. We show how geometric constraints, varied by adjusting the rod configuration, also play a role in localized gas holdup but not as substantial as replacing a single fuel rod with a superhydrophobic-coated rod. Lastly, advanced measurement techniques, such as X-ray computed tomography, have proven effective at providing a non-intrusive and spatial and temporal resolution of void fraction measurements in dynamic multiphase flow systems.

With the growing demand for clean, carbon free electricity around the globe due to industrialization and increasing populations, nuclear reactors will become a necessity to supplement power from intermittent renewable sources. Advanced reactor designs such as the Fluoride Salt-cooled High Temperature Reactor, or FHR, are especially desirable due to their small, modular design, their passive safety systems, and their smaller capital costs. The reactor’s small size, high temperatures, and single-phase molten salt coolant meant that conventional heat exchanger designs could not be used as the primary form of heat removal. This lead to the development of the Coiled Tube Gas Heater, or CTGH, so that the reactor could be coupled with an air Brayton reheat cycle. The CTGH is a shell-and-tube heat exchanger that uses an annular tube geometry to reduce the overall volume of the heat exchanger. In the FHR design, the air flows up the center of the annular bundle and flows out radially through the coiled tubes. The molten salt coolant is distributed vertically to multiple tubes within multiple sub-bundles in the CTGH. Starting at the outer radius of the bundle, the salt tubes coil around the bundle multiple times before reaching the inner manifolds and flowing out the bottom of the heat exchanger. This creates a heat exchanger with high effectiveness due to a large heat transfer surface area density and with a design that is essentially a counterflow heat exchanger. By using seamless tubes that are in compression rather than tension, the design minimizes the points of stress concentration and the risk of tubes bursting. Due to its high effectiveness, relatively low pressure drops, compact design, structural integrity, and resistance to damage from thermal shocks, the CTGH is an optimal choice for the primary heat exchanger in the FHR design.

In order to design the CTGH specifically for the FHR, it was necessary to simulate the conditions in the FHR. Conventional modeling codes would take too long to model the complex geometry of the CTGH to be an effective design tool, so this dissertation developed an effectiveness modeling code specifically for CTGHs called Transverse Heat Exchange Effectiveness Model, or THEEM. THEEM is an unconventional finite volume method code that uses empirical heat transfer and pressure drop correlations instead of governing equations for its calculations. It was used to model the temperature and pressure distributions across the CTGH bundle and, consequently, to calculate the effectiveness, fluid outlet temperatures, and fluid pressure drops across the bundle. This program was then used to model the CTGH for the FHR.

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It found that this design, compact enough to fit on a rail car, would transfer the desired heat between the salt and the air, and it would have relatively low pressure drops for the salt and air.

In order to use THEEM as a design tool, it was necessary to validate the code experimentally. Two different experiments that both used water and air as heat transfer fluids were performed for this purpose. The first experiment primarily served as a proof of concept for fabrication of a CTGH tube bundle, but due to poor construction, it did not provide useful experimental data. The second experiment was constructed specifically for comparison with the THEEM code. Its measurements provided useful data to validate THEEM for larger CTGH designs. The second experimental setup also provided opportunities for other experiments. First, airflow measurements were taken around the bundle in order to measure the airflow distribution around the bundle, which can be used to model flow distribution in CTGH bundles. Next, using the Wilson plot method, the setup was used to derive empirical Nusselt number correlations for both the tube-side and shell-side of the heat exchanger. These can be used in system modeling codes to calculate the heat transfer in the CTGH for different reactors. Finally, the setup was used to perform binary impulse measurements for the CTGH. This measured the response of the heat exchanger to an immediate loss of heating power. With further additions to the setup, these tests could be modified to simulate the CTGH’s response to various reactor accidents and transients in both the FHR and other reactors.

Once THEEM had gone through initial experimental validation, it could be expanded as a design tool for other applications besides the FHR. First, a parametric study was performed to measure the effect of changing each aspect of the CTGH geometry on the outlet parameters of the bundle. These results were then used to develop an optimization tool that could design CTGHs for various applications outside of the FHR. This optimization tool used a Monte Carlo method algorithm as well as physical constraints set by the user to design the optimal CTGH for a given application. This tool was then used to design CTGHs for different applications coupling a single-phase coolant with a Brayton cycle. These examples included a CTGH coupling a sodium fast reactor with a supercritical carbon dioxide Brayton cycle, a CTGH coupling a different molten salt reactor with an air cooling system, and CTGHs used in different electrically-heated salt loops that thermally modeled nuclear reactors. This showed that the CTGH could be used in multiple nuclear applications and that THEEM would be an effective design tool for those CTGHs.

The work performed in this dissertation will be essential to deploying large scale CTGHs for the FHR and other reactors. The THEEM code and the results of the experiments in this dissertation can be used for performing a structural analysis of the heat exchanger, studying flow-induced vibration through the tube bundle, studying the effects of tube fouling over the lifetime of the heat exchanger, and performing a cost analysis on fabrication of the heat exchanger. With these future studies and the work presented in this dissertation, the CTGH design will become a more efficient and cost-effective heat exchanger for the FHR and other nuclear Brayton cycles.