O-acetylserine sulfhydrylase, a homo-dimeric enzyme from Salmonella typhimurium, covalently binds one pyridoxal 5'-phosphate molecule per subunit as a fluorescent coenzyme. Different tautomers of the Schiff base between the coenzyme and lysine 41 generate structured absorption and fluorescence spectra upon one-photon excitation. We investigated the protein population heterogeneity by fluorescence correlation spectroscopy and lifetime techniques upon two-photon excitation. We sampled the fluorescence intensity from a small number of molecules (approximately 10) and analyzed the distribution of photon counts to separately determine the number and the fluorescence brightness of excited protein molecules. The changes in the average number of molecules and in the fluorescence brightness with the excitation wavelength indicate the presence of at least two fluorescent species, with two-photon excitation maxima at 660 and 800 nm. These species have been identified as the enolimine and ketoenamine tautomers of the protein-coenzyme internal aldimine. Their relative abundance is estimated to be 4:1, whereas the ratio of their two-photon cross sections is reversed with respect to the single-photon excitation case. Consistent results are obtained from the measurement of the lifetime decays, which are sensitive to the excited-state heterogeneity. At least two components were detected, with lifetimes of approximately 2.5 and 0.5 ns. The lifetimes are very close to the values measured in bulk solutions upon one-photon excitation and attributed to the ketoenamine tautomer and to a dipolar species formed upon proton dissociation in the excited state.

O-acetylserine sulfhydrylase A (CysK) is the pyridoxal 5'-phosphate-dependent enzyme that catalyzes the final reaction of cysteine biosynthesis in bacteria. CysK was initially identified in a complex with serine acetyltransferase (CysE), which catalyzes the penultimate reaction in the synthetic pathway. This "cysteine synthase" complex is stabilized by insertion of the CysE C-terminus into the active-site of CysK. Remarkably, the CysK/CysE binding interaction is conserved in most bacterial and plant systems. For the past 40years, CysK was thought to function exclusively in cysteine biosynthesis, but recent studies have revealed a repertoire of additional "moonlighting" activities for this enzyme. CysK and its paralogs influence transcription in both Gram-positive bacteria and the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. CysK also activates an antibacterial nuclease toxin produced by uropathogenic Escherichia coli. Intriguingly, each moonlighting activity requires a binding partner that invariably mimics the C-terminus of CysE to interact with the CysK active site. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Cofactor-dependent proteins: evolution, chemical diversity and bio-applications.

Proteins utilizing pyridoxal 5'-phosphate as a coenzyme constitute a large superfamily and are currently classified into three functional groups and five structural fold types. Despite the variability of sequences and catalyzed reactions, they share relevant structural, dynamic and functional properties. Therefore, they constitute an optimal system to investigate the relative influence of primary sequence and coenzyme interactions on folding pathways, structural stability and enzymatic function. O-Acetylserine sulfhydrylase is a dimeric pyridoxal 5'-phosphate dependent enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of L-cysteine from O-acetylserine and sulfide. The time-resolved fluorescence study of O-acetylserine sulfhydrylase unfolding, here reported, indicates that the coenzyme stabilizes the protein structure. The dependence on denaturant concentration of tryptophan lifetimes in the holo- and apo-enzyme demonstrates that the interactions with the coenzyme stabilize the C-terminal domain to a higher extent with respect to the N-terminal domain. This result is discussed in terms of a linkage between the differential stabilization brought about by the coenzyme and the different degrees of conformational flexibility required by the specialized functional role of distinct protein regions.

Contact-dependent growth inhibition (CDI) is a wide-spread mechanism of inter-bacterial competition. CDI⁺ bacteria deliver CdiA-CT toxins into neighboring bacteria and produce specific immunity proteins that protect against self-intoxication. The CdiA-CT toxin from uropathogenic Escherichia coli 536 is a latent tRNase that is only active when bound to the cysteine biosynthetic enzyme CysK. Remarkably, the CysK:CdiA-CT binding interaction mimics the 'cysteine synthase' complex of CysK:CysE. The C-terminal tails of CysE and CdiA-CT each insert into the CysK active-site cleft to anchor the respective complexes. The dissociation constant for CysK:CdiA-CT (K _d ~ 11 nM) is comparable to that of the E. coli cysteine synthase complex (K _d ~ 6 nM), and both complexes bind through a two-step mechanism with a slow isomerization phase after the initial encounter. However, the second-order rate constant for CysK:CdiA-CT binding is two orders of magnitude slower than that of the cysteine synthase complex, suggesting that CysE should outcompete the toxin for CysK occupancy. However, we find that CdiA-CT can effectively displace CysE from pre-formed cysteine synthase complexes, enabling toxin activation even in the presence of excess competing CysE. This adventitious binding, coupled with the very slow rate of CysK:CdiA-CT dissociation, ensures robust nuclease activity in target bacteria.

Proteins belonging to the superfamily of pyridoxal 5'-phosphate-dependent enzymes are currently classified into three functional groups and five distinct structural fold types. The variation within this enzyme group creates an ideal system to investigate the relationships among amino acid sequences, folding pathways, and enzymatic functions. The number of known three-dimensional structures of pyridoxal 5'-phosphate-dependent enzymes is rapidly increasing, but only for relatively few have the folding mechanisms been characterized in detail. The dimeric O-acetylserine sulfhydrylase from Salmonella typhimurium belongs to the beta-family and fold type II group. Here we report the guanidine hydrochloride-induced unfolding of the apo- and holoprotein, investigated using a variety of spectroscopic techniques. Data from absorption, fluorescence, circular dichroism, (31)P nuclear magnetic resonance, time-resolved fluorescence anisotropy, and photon correlation spectroscopy indicate that the O-acetylserine sulfhydrylase undergoes extensive disruption of native secondary and tertiary structure before monomerization. Also, we have observed that the holo-O-acetylserine sulfhydrylase exhibits a greater conformational stability than the apoenzyme form. The data are discussed in light of the fact that the role of the coenzyme in structural stabilization varies among the pyridoxal 5'-phosphate-dependent enzymes and does not seem to be linked to the particular enzyme fold type.