Combining interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) data from ascending and descending orbits we estimate both quasi-vertical and quasi-east-west displacements for a region in central Algeria, an area encompassing an active large-scale carbon dioxide storage project, the In Salah gas storage project. The surface deformation associated with the injection into three horizontal wells is clearly visible in the InSAR estimates. We find that the addition of the quasi-horizontal displacement data enables us to discriminate between source models producing similar vertical displacements. In particular, predictions from a model consisting of a distribution of volume changes restricted to the reservoir depth interval satisfies the quasivertical data but does not match the quasi-east-west displacement data. However, aperture changes on subvertical damage zones, intersecting each of the injection wells, give rise to displacements matching both the quasi-east-west and vertical components. In all cases, we can match the observations with the most significant volume and aperture changes in regions immediately surrounding the injection wells. © Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Royal Astronomical Society 2013.

Geodetic monitoring involves the repeated measurement of the deformation of the Earth. As discussed here, it is a cost-effective approach for inferring reservoir integrity and detecting possible leakage associated with the geological storage of greenhouse gas emissions. Most geodetic methods have favorable temporal sampling, from minutes to months depending upon the technique adopted, and can detect anomalous behavior in a timely fashion. Satellite-based approaches such as Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR), with their high spatial resolution and broad coverage, are particularly well suited for monitoring industrial-scale storage efforts. Multitemporal analysis, such as permanent scatterer techniques, are improving the accuracy of surface displacement measurements to better than 4 - 5 mm. New satellites, including the recent X-band systems, are allowing for the routine estimation of two components of deformation. Data interpretation and inversion techniques may be used to relate the observed displacements to injection-related volume change at depth. InSAR monitoring was used successfully at a gas storage site at In Salah, Algeria, where it was determined that the flow in the reservoir was influenced by large-scale fault/fracture zones. InSAR observations are also key components of the monitoring programs at the Aquistore CO2 storage project in Canada, and the Illinois Basis Decatur Project in the United States. Current InSAR data from both sites indicate no major surface deformation that might be attributed to the stored carbon dioxide, suggesting that the injected fluid remains at depth.

Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) data, gathered over the In Salah CO2storage project in Algeria, provide an early indication that satellite-based geodetic methods can be effective in monitoring the geological storage of carbon dioxide. An injected mass of 3 million tons of carbon dioxide from one of the first large-scale carbon sequestration efforts, produces a measurable surface displacement of approximately 5 mm/year. Using geophysical inverse techniques, we are able to infer flow within the reservoir layer and within a seismically detected fracture/fault zone intersecting the reservoir. We find that, if we use the best available elastic Earth model, the fluid flow need only occur in the vicinity of the reservoir layer. However, flow associated with the injection of the carbon dioxide does appear to extend several kilometers laterally within the reservoir, following the fracture/fault zone. Copyright © 2010 by the American Geophysical Union.

Fixation constraints in visual tasks are ubiquitous in visual and cognitive neuroscience. Despite its widespread use, fixation requires trained subjects, is limited by the accuracy of fixational eye movements, and ignores the role of eye movements in shaping visual input. To overcome these limitations, we developed a suite of hardware and software tools to study vision during natural behavior in untrained subjects. We measured visual receptive fields and tuning properties from multiple cortical areas of marmoset monkeys who freely viewed full-field noise stimuli. The resulting receptive fields and tuning curves from primary visual cortex (V1) and area MT match reported selectivity from the literature which was measured using conventional approaches. We then combined free viewing with high-resolution eye tracking to make the first detailed 2D spatiotemporal measurements of foveal receptive fields in V1. These findings demonstrate the power of free viewing to characterize neural responses in untrained animals while simultaneously studying the dynamics of natural behavior.

We resolve deformation at The Geysers Geothermal Field using two distinct sets of interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) data. The first set of observations utilize archived European Space Agency C-band synthetic aperture radar data from 1992 through 1999 to image the long-term and large-scale subsidence at The Geysers. The peak range velocity of approximately 50 mm/year agrees with previous estimates from leveling and global positioning system observations. Data from a second set of measurements, acquired by TerraSAR-X satellites, extend from May 2011 until April 2012 and overlap the C-band data spatially but not temporally. These X-band data, analyzed using a combined permanent and distributed scatterer algorithm, provide a higher density of scatterers (1122 per square kilometer) than do the C-band data (12 per square kilometer). The TerraSAR-X observations resolve 1 to 2 cm of deformation due to water injection into a Northwest Geysers enhanced geothermal system well, initiated on October 2011. The temporal variation of the deformation is compatible with estimates from coupled numerical modeling. © 2013 American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.

The contribution of B cells to the pathology of Omenn syndrome and leaky severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) has not been previously investigated. We have studied a mut/mut mouse model of leaky SCID with a homozygous Rag1 S723C mutation that impairs, but does not abrogate, V(D)J recombination activity. In spite of a severe block at the pro-B cell stage and profound B cell lymphopenia, significant serum levels of immunoglobulin (Ig) G, IgM, IgA, and IgE and a high proportion of Ig-secreting cells were detected in mut/mut mice. Antibody responses to trinitrophenyl (TNP)-Ficoll and production of high-affinity antibodies to TNP-keyhole limpet hemocyanin were severely impaired, even after adoptive transfer of wild-type CD4(+) T cells. Mut/mut mice produced high amounts of low-affinity self-reactive antibodies and showed significant lymphocytic infiltrates in peripheral tissues. Autoantibody production was associated with impaired receptor editing and increased serum B cell-activating factor (BAFF) concentrations. Autoantibodies and elevated BAFF levels were also identified in patients with Omenn syndrome and leaky SCID as a result of hypomorphic RAG mutations. These data indicate that the stochastic generation of an autoreactive B cell repertoire, which is associated with defects in central and peripheral checkpoints of B cell tolerance, is an important, previously unrecognized, aspect of immunodeficiencies associated with hypomorphic RAG mutations.