We examined the mutagenic specificity of the widely used antibiotic ciprofloxacin (CPR), which displays weak to moderate mutagenic activity in several bacteria and generates short in-frame deletions in rpoB in Staphylococcus aureus To determine the spectrum of mutations in a system where any gene knockout would result in a recovered mutant, including frameshifts and both short and long deletions, we examined CPR-induced mutations in the thymidylate synthase-encoding thyA gene. Here, any mutation resulting in loss of thymidylate synthase activity generates trimethoprim (Trm) resistance. We found that deletions and insertions in all three reading frames predominated in the spectrum. They tend to be short deletions and cluster in two regions, one being a GC-rich region with potential extensive secondary structures. We also exploited the well-characterized rpoB-Rif(r) system in Escherichia coli to determine that cells grown in the presence of sublethal doses of CPR not only induced short in-frame deletions in rpoB, but also generated base substitution mutations resulting from induction of the SOS system. Some of the specific point mutations prominent in the spectrum of a strain that overproduces the dinB-encoded Pol IV were also present after growth in CPR. However, these mutations disappeared in CPR-treated dinB mutants, whereas the deletions remained. Moreover, CPR-induced deletions also occurred in a strain lacking all three SOS-induced polymerases. We discuss the implications of these findings for the consequences of overuse of CPR and other antibiotics.

Unlabelled

We tested pairwise combinations of classical base analog mutagens in Escherichia coli to study possible mutagen synergies. We examined the cytidine analogs zebularine (ZEB) and 5-azacytidine (5AZ), the adenine analog 2-aminopurine (2AP), and the uridine/thymidine analog 5-bromodeoxyuridine (5BrdU). We detected a striking synergy with the 2AP plus ZEB combination, resulting in hypermutability, a 35-fold increase in mutation frequency (to 53,000 × 10(-8)) in the rpoB gene over that with either mutagen alone. A weak synergy was also detected with 2AP plus 5AZ and with 5BrdU plus ZEB. The pairing of 2AP and 5BrdU resulted in suppression, lowering the mutation frequency of 5BrdU alone by 6.5-fold. Sequencing the mutations from the 2AP plus ZEB combination showed the predominance of two new hot spots for A·T→G·C transitions that are not well represented in either single mutagen spectrum, and one of which is not found even in the spectrum of a mismatch repair-deficient strain. The strong synergy between 2AP and ZEB could be explained by changes in the dinucleoside triphosphate (dNTP) pools.

Importance

Although mutagens have been widely studied, the mutagenic effects of combinations of mutagens have not been fully researched. Here, we show that certain pairwise combinations of base analog mutagens display synergy or suppression. In particular, the combination of 2-aminopurine and zebularine, analogs of adenine and cytidine, respectively, shows a 35-fold increased mutation frequency compared with that of either mutagen alone. Understanding the mechanism of synergy can lead to increased understanding of mutagenic processes. As combinations of base analogs are used in certain chemotherapy regimens, including those involving ZEB and 5AZ, these results indicate that testing the mutagenicity of all drug combinations is prudent.