One of the primary goals of any multi-tiered intervention system delivered within an educational setting is to provide an appropriate level of support to each student based upon his or her demonstrated level of need. It has been established that approximately 95% of students served under a multi-tiered intervention system will have their needs met without ever entering into the highest tier of support. However, for the 5% of students who do enter into the restrictive settings associated with top tier service delivery, educational, as well as overall life outcomes, have traditionally been demonstrated to be very poor. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of utilizing a multi-tiered intervention system to address behavior problems exhibited by primary age students within a highly restrictive, top tier setting. Although multi-tiered intervention systems such as Response to Intervention (RtI) and Positive Behavior Support (PBS) have previously been applied across various types of educational settings to address both academic and behavioral deficits, little attention has been paid to the utility of such approaches for addressing problem behavior for students who are educated within alternative educational settings. The current study sought to evaluate the utility of a behaviorally based RtI service delivery model, delivered within a highly restrictive setting, to decrease problem behaviors, increase pro-social behavior, and to guide placement decisions.

This study examined the effects of a phonological awareness intervention for at-risk kindergarten and first grade students. The intervention consisted of five phonological awareness activities and one vocabulary activity and occurred three times per week for 30 minutes. The researcher evaluated the kindergarten students' phonemic awareness screening data and first grade students' phonics screening data using an ANCOVA design, using fall phonemic awareness scores as the covariate. For kindergarten students, there was not a significant effect on phonemic awareness or alphabetic principle skills. For first grade students, there was not a significant effect on phonics skills, but there was a significant effect on oral reading fluency skills. The average rates of improvement between the kindergarten intervention and control groups were not significantly different for a measure of phonemic awareness. However, the average rates of improvement between the first grade intervention and control groups were significantly different for phonics. These results suggest that this intervention can be effective in increasing the reading fluency skills of first graders.

This study examined the differences between special education eligibility psychological reports written for students assessed for Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD). Previous research documents the need for including previously attempted intervention and linking assessment results to intervention in SLD classification efforts in order to inform future instruction (Reschly, 1980). Forty reports were analyzed using a measure called the Psychological Report Survey, which was created for this study and designed to examine reports utility in informing future instruction. Twenty reports were written using a discrepancy approach and 20 reports were written using a Response to Intervention (RTI) approach. Results demonstrated statistical significant differences (p < .01) between the two types of reports for 4 of the 5 categories measured by the Psychological Report Survey. Findings revealed that differences do exist in the reports' use of data and evidence-based practices. However, no significant differences existed between the reports' Conclusion and Recommendations sections. Limitations of the study and future directions for future research in the area are discussed.

This study compared the use of grade versus instructional level material for progress monitoring struggling readers by examining the materials' psychometric characteristics and the data's influence on teacher expectations and instructional decision-making. Students were progress monitored with both sets of probes for 6 - 8 weeks. Each set of data was analyzed for sensitivity to growth and predictive validity and evaluated by classroom teachers. Results found no statistical difference in sensitivity to growth or predictive validity (p > .05). Both data based decision rules based on trend analysis and teacher responses to questionnaires indicated that grade level data was more likely to portray student progress as inadequate and the current intervention as needing modification and/or increase in intensity. Limitations of the study and directions for future research are discussed.

To improve reading proficiency, evidence-based interventions need to be implemented with integrity in schools. Using a multiple baseline single case design, this study examined the impact of performance feedback from consultants on treatment integrity and student outcomes for Peer Assisted Learning Strategies, an evidence-based, standard protocol, class-wide peer tutoring intervention. Participants were four grade 2 to 5 general education teachers and the students in their classes. Results showed a functional relationship between performance feedback and treatment integrity, including higher treatment integrity of core intervention components. Reading growth rates appeared to have increased, but changes were not statistically significant. Overall, teachers rated the performance feedback procedure and PALS positively. Limitations of the study, implications for practice, and directions for future research are discussed.

The primary aim of this study was to examine the predictive validity of early literacy measures with Korean English language learners (ELLs) representing varying levels of English language proficiency. First-grade Korean ELLs (N = 102) were screened in the winter using measures of Phoneme Segmentation Fluency (PSF), Nonsense Word Fluency (NWF), and Word Identification Fluency (WIF). Spring reading criterion measures included Oral Reading Fluency (ORF) and the Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests (WRMT). Among the winter screening measures, WIF was found to be most correlated with end-of-the year reading outcomes for the larger sample, as well for students aggregated by language proficiency groups. While moderate to high correlations were also found for winter NWF with respect to spring outcomes, correlations were much smaller in magnitude for winter PSF. Results of hierarchical regression models, with PSF, NWF, and WIF entered respectively, also found that the addition of WIF resulted in a large and significant change in R2 with respect to both spring ORF and WRMT scores. Final models accounted for a total of 75.6% of the variance in spring ORF scores and 60.4% of the variance in WRMT scores. Furthermore, of the winter screening measures, only winter WIF was found to be significant at the p < 0.05 level in both of the final models. Finally, an examination of the diagnostic accuracy of PSF and NWF at-risk cutoffs established by the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) yielded negative predictive values at or above 85% for all tests with respect to spring outcomes; however, positive predictive values were significantly lower, ranging from 17% to 47%. Although past studies have found that many of the same assessments tools that have been used with native English speakers can be used with ELLs, the results of this study indicate that there is a need for the continued development of decision rules and appropriate assessment tools that are sensitive to the unique cultural and linguistic backgrounds of ELLs.

The use of oral reading fluency (ORF) passages within a Response to Intervention (RTI) framework is examined. Significant limitations within the current ORF research are discussed. The passage equivalency and readability scores for DIBELS Next, AIMSweb, and a school district's curriculum's ORF passages are evaluated using Generalizability Theory and readability formulas. Multiple regression is used to analyze the contribution of ORF progress monitoring passages for predicting the California Standards Test (CST). The optimal number of ORF passages to administer is also examined. Participants consisted of third and fifth grade students from an urban school district in Southern California. Results indicate that readability formulas provide wide range of scores for individual passages but rank sets of passages fairly equally. Results also indicate that ORF passages have high levels of reliability and variance attributable to student skill. Finally, results also indicate that the addition of progress monitoring did not increase the predictive validity of the CSTs. The implications, limitations, and future direction of research are discussed.

This study evaluated the properties of a 37-item survey designed to measure a school's implementation of a multi-tiered support system (MTSS). Twenty-four elementary schools from one urban school district participated in the study and were grouped based on assigned level of implementation. Survey responses were collected from 148 different staff members. Internal consistency was evaluated using Cronbach's alpha which equaled 0.981, 95% CI [0.975, 0.986]. Interrater agreement, as measured by average measure intraclass correlation (ICC), was 0.979, 95% CI [0.973, 0.985] across all schools and raters. An ANOVA comparing the mean survey score total across groups did not reveal any significant differences [F (2, 96) = 0.41, p =0 .67], nor were there any significant correlations between survey score totals and student outcomes as measured by AIMSweb. Reliability of the survey was strong, but further refinement is needed to improve the survey's ability to discriminate between implementation levels.

This study investigated the utility of two early literacy screening measures, Nonsense Word Fluency (NWF) and Word Identification Fluency (WIF), with a sample of culturally and linguistically diverse students. Included within the overall sample of 196 first grade students were 106 Spanish-speaking ELLs at varying levels of English proficiency. Screening measures were administered in the winter of first grade, and used to predict oral reading fluency (ORF) at the end of the school year. Results indicated that WIF accounted for substantial variance in ORF above and beyond that accounted for by NWF. Receiver operating characteristic curve analyses revealed that WIF was superior to NWF in terms of classification accuracy. Differences in predicting ORF for ELLs at low, moderate, and high levels of English proficiency were observed on the NWF measure. Study outcomes provide support for WIF as an early literacy screener within early prevention and intervention frameworks.

This study examined the effectiveness of a targeted early literacy intervention among Spanish-speaking kindergarten English Learners (ELs). Using a Response to Intervention (RtI) framework, participants were screened in English to ensure a need for additional literacy support. Selected students were then screened in Spanish, and students with established Spanish phonological awareness (PA) skills were not included to participate. Twenty students identified as `at-risk' through the screening process were assigned to receive a 9-week supplemental Spanish-only intervention. Forty students not at-risk served as the comparison group. The effect of the intervention was examined using a Regression Discontinuity (RD) design. Results of the study revealed a significant main effect for intervention students' PA skills in both languages. A significant main effect was also found for students' phonics skills in Spanish, but not in English. Results further indicated that there was no significant difference between students' growth on English vs. Spanish measures of PA and phonics. Additionally, treatment integrity was measured for half of the sessions delivered, and the data revealed that the intervention was delivered with a high degree of integrity by both interventionists (i.e., 98% and 97%). Limitations and implications are discussed.