Retrieval practice—the process of actively calling information to mind rather than passively studying materials—has been proven to be a highly effective learning strategy. However, only recently, researchers have started to examine differences between learners in terms of the optimal conditions of retrieval practice in applied educational settings. In this study (N = 118), we focus on learners with dyslexia: a group that is usually not included in the retrieval practice literature. We compare their performance to the performance of typical learners in an adaptive, retrieval practice-based word learning task using both typing-based and speech-based response conditions. We find that typical learners outperform learners with dyslexia when they are asked to respond by typing, but that this difference is much smaller when learners can respond by speech. These results can contribute to the development of educational technology that allows for effective and inclusive learning in neurodivergent individuals.

Digital adaptive fact learning systems tailor learning sessions to the individual learner. Most adaptive learning systems assume that the learner has no prior knowledge of the material and therefore use an initial ‘passive rehearsal’ trial for all facts. Here, we test a system that uses active retrieval trials instead of passive study trials when introducing items. This minimizes time loss associated with studying familiar materials and maximizes potential benefits of attempted retrieval before study. We test the system by having participants learn the association between the outlines and names of countries, a domain in which they are likely to have varying degrees of prior knowledge. We show that using attempted retrieval to identify known items is valuable in real-world applications, where partial knowledge of study materials before the start of a learning session is very common.

While students typically prefer multiple-choice learning, open-answer questions have frequently been found to be more effective, attributed to their role in promoting recall as opposed to recognition. Here, we examine increasing the effectiveness of multiple-choice testing as a learning tool, by using foils (incorrect answer options) that are similar in meaning and word form to the correct answer. Participants studied French-Dutch vocabulary in three learning conditions: one with unrelated foils, another with open questions, and a third using multiple choice questions with related foils. The related foils were either semantically or orthographically similar to the correct answer. The results showed no significant difference between the open questions and the related foils condition, indicating comparable effectiveness. Replicating earlier studies, the unrelated foils condition yielded significantly poorer learning outcomes. Overall, these results suggest that multiple-choice testing can be a viable alternative to open answer testing when utilizing related foils.

We demonstrate an application for learning multiplication problems with an adaptive algorithm that is based on a computational cognitive model of the learner's memory. The application helps learners automatise and memorise multiplications through repeated practice over three levels of difficulty. In a naturalistic setting involving more than 500 primary school students (ages 6-10) who together recorded over 300,000 responses, we observed that performance improved as learners using the application progressed through the levels. A model-based analysis of performance revealed that learners' estimated speed of forgetting decreased from the second to the third level. This is consistent with a shift towards stronger declarative knowledge and/or more efficient computation procedures. The model also identified consistent differences in the difficulty of individual multiplication facts that persisted across levels. This study demonstrates the feasibility of using an adaptive fact learning application to help young learners master multiplication, an essential mathematical skill.