Mangroves are highly efficient blue carbon sinks that sequester and store large quantities of carbon in standing stock biomass and sediments for long time periods. The conversion of one hectare of mangrove to shrimp farming in Thailand can release 330 mt CO2 e/ha/yr. Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation-Plus (REDD+) provides international payments and assistance for avoiding anthropogenic emissions from deforestation. REDD+ must compensate land users for lost income. In Thailand, shrimp farming resulted in rapid mangrove deforestation with profits ranging from $725/ha (low) upwards of $36,000/ha (high), with an average income of $6,235.58/ha. Given that one hectare of mangroves grants 231 carbon credits per year, for a low-profit shrimp farmer, the price per ton of CO2 e would have to equal $3.14/mt CO2 e. For the average shrimp farmer, a price of $27.00/mt CO2 e makes conservation as profitable as shrimp farming. For a high-profit farmer, the price per ton of carbon must equal $156.00/ mt CO2 e. Prices in existing carbon markets can cover the opportunity costs of marginal shrimp farmers in Thailand despite the high profits of shrimp aquaculture. REDD+ carbon credits and incorporation into existing markets present an opportunity to provide a substantial funding and tangible incentives for mangrove conservation.

Between the years of 1989 and 1992, the Cold War Era came to an end with the collapse of the communist Soviet bloc. However, unique among the Soviet imposed communist regimes, the struggling North Korean government has lived on, defying odds and predictions. How is it that the North Korean regime is able to withstand the pressures of change? What impact did the transformation in the international situation have on North Korea’s seemingly contradictory and often unpredictable foreign policy? Most research on this subject has focused on North Korea’s unique internal structure, but this paper will show that, as was the case in Eastern Europe, the answer to these questions can be found in the regime’s geopolitical conditions.

By using articles from the Rodong Sinmun, Kulloja, and the Pyongyang Times from this period, this paper will show that North Korea believed that the changes in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union posed a serious threat to its internal system, sovereignty, and legitimacy due to the deteriorating geopolitical environment. This understanding compelled North Korea to implement new foreign policies to adapt to a new world order: establishing friendlier relations with its neighbors and developing nuclear capabilities. This paper will illustrate that both policies were rational and complementary responses that has been critical for the survival of the North Korean regime. Also, as these two policies are inseparable, instead of coercing or enticing North Korea to accommodate, it will be much more effective to change the underlying considerations that led to these policies.