Although autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is defined by core deficits in social communication and social interaction, there is considerable heterogeneity in social functioning among individuals with ASD. Relatively little is known about the origins and development of these individual differences. Emerging research suggests that family environments and genetic variants independently contribute to social functioning in youth with ASD, yet a better understanding of how these factors interact is necessary to: (1) parse apart factors that contribute to social heterogeneity in ASD and (2) develop and select optimal treatments based on individual characteristics. The present studies took an interdisciplinary approach to examine how early parenting quality and child genetics interact to predict trajectories of social functioning in youth with ASD. Participants were 176 families of children aged 4-7 years with ASD selected from a longitudinal study of developmental processes in ASD. Responsive parenting was rated within the context of free play parent-child interactions. Social development was assessed through multi-rater (parent, teacher) report of child social skills across three time points spanning 1.5 years. Study 1 examined the role of responsive parenting in predicting variation in child social development. Study 2 assessed biologically plausible candidate genes [serotonin transport gene (5-HTTLPR); oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR); dopamine receptor gene (DRD4)] as markers of susceptibility to environmental influence and mechanisms of genetically-informed environmental sensitivity. Specifically, Study 2 evaluated: (a) the additive and interactive effects of 5-HTTLPR, OXTR, DRD4 and responsive parenting in predicting social development in ASD, and (b) whether child emotion regulation mediates observed responsive parenting x child genotype interactions on social development. Initial levels of responsive parenting positively predicted prospective change in social skills by teacher report, and in parent-report models controlling for OXTR genotypes. 5-HTTLPR and DRD4, but not OXTR were found to interact with responsive parenting to predict growth in child social skills; interactions were not mediated by emotion regulation. Findings illuminate pathways of biopsychosocial models of development in ASD and stand to inform targeted, parent-mediated interventions.

Previous research has provided consistent evidence that positive parenting is a strong protective factor for children at risk, yet little is known about what factors lead to positive parenting. Parenting dimensions are almost always predictor variables and rarely outcomes, so that we know little about how it is that parents facing formidable challenges are still able to function reasonably well. Given the great benefits of positive parenting to child development under normal circumstances, and the even greater benefits in the face of risk, it is important to understand why some parents manage to be effective in their interactions with their child despite facing formidable challenges (i.e. resilient parenting). The purpose of this investigation was to examine factors that promote positive parenting in the presence of child and economic risk during various developmental periods. The first study examined resilient parenting in early childhood (age 3-5), and the second study replicated the model to assess risk and protective factors for positive parenting in middle childhood (age 5-8). The third study assessed resilient parenting in adolescence (age 13-15) and examined additional risk and protective factors pertaining to this particular developmental period, utilizing additional measures and both quantitative and qualitative methods. The third study also examined an additional sample of youth with autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

Results from the first two studies indicated that parenting is less positive given child and economic risk factors, but also that mother attributes (e.g., optimism) can buffer this risk-poorer parenting relationship in early and middle childhood. Results from the third study suggested that parenting is less influenced by child and economic risk factors in adolescence. Comparison of mothers with and without children with developmental disabilities revealed similar levels of positive parenting, but factors that reportedly promoted positive parenting differed between the groups, particularly in the domain of social support. A focus on resilient parenting directs attention toward promoting positive parent cognitions and providing resources to build parenting strengths, which fits well with the current interest in more positive approaches to family support.

Prior research supports that the transition to adulthood marks a vulnerable developmental period, marked by pervasively poor outcomes, for individuals with developmental disorders (DD), such as intellectual disability or autism spectrum disorder (e.g., Shattuck et al., 2012; Eaves & Ho, 2008; Bouck, 2012; Young-Southward, Philo, & Cooper, 2017). However, psychosocial and contextual correlates of successful transitions have not yet been thoroughly examined. The current dissertation sought to address this gap in the literature, with a particular focus on mental health (Study I) and social support (Study II). Both studies utilized a singular participant sample (N=93) consisting of typically developing (TD) young adults, young adults with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) with or without cognitive impairments, and young adults with intellectual disability (ID), all of whom were part of a larger longitudinal study. Consistent with previous research, our results indicated that young adults with DD, and especially those with ASD, reliably fared worse than young adults with TD across a variety of outcomes. Results indicated that both mental health and social support in young adulthood explain variability in concurrent functional transition outcomes (e.g., independence, professional involvement). Adolescent predictors of both young adult mental health and young adult social support were also identified, highlighting targets for intervention that may bolster successful transitions to adulthood for all.

Parent-child conflict is associated with a range of negative socioemotional outcomes for youth, including mental health problems, poorer social functioning, and long-term detrimental effects on romantic partnerships and their own parenting practices. Little is known about parent-child conflict in families of youth with developmental disabilities (DD), namely intellectual disability and autism spectrum disorders, despite their particular susceptibility to its problematic impact. Youth with DD have a heightened risk of mental health problems and social difficulties, and their parents exhibit more stress and negative parenting. Furthermore, most research to-date has examined parent-child conflict during adolescence. Research exploring the longitudinal course of parent-child conflict and contributors to conflict earlier in development could help identify targets for effective early intervention. Finally, researchers debate as to what empirical methods best capture parent-child conflict. More research is needed to examine how self-report and behavioral observations of parent-child conflict relate to one another and to broader relational outcomes.

This dissertation is a three-study longitudinal examination of parent-child conflict and conflict resolution in youth with or without developmental disability. In Study 1, child emotion dysregulation and cognitive ability were investigated as predictors of parent-child conflict across ages 3 to 7 years. Results indicated that level of conflict increased across time only for children with both low intellectual functioning and high dysregulation, suggesting a transactional relationship between these two risk factors that underscores the importance of early behavioral intervention in offsetting problematic relational patterns. In Study 2, the unique and joint contributions of youth disability status (typically developing [TD] or with intellectual disability [ID]) and youth externalizing problems to observed parent-child conflict resolution behaviors were explored across pre- to mid-adolescence (ages 9, 13, and 15 years). The findings suggested that parental expectations may strongly influence parent-youth conflict resolution skills and indicated that externalizing behavior and conflict resolution skills may be more strongly linked within families of TD youth. In Study 3, disability status group differences (TD, ID, or with autism spectrum disorders [ASD]) were examined with respect to observed conflict resolution behaviors and parents’ and youths’ perceptions of conflict and closeness during mid-adolescence (age 15 years). The disability status groups were generally similar in terms of the observed behaviors and self-reported perceptions and how these related to one another, though there were some differentially negative outcomes and associations for TD youth as compared to their peers with ID or ASD. Results were explored in the context of additive risk and disruptive transition points during child development, as well as ways in which identifying resiliency and strengths can break down stigma for individuals with DD and their families.

Children with intellectual disabilities (ID) represent an underserved minority in the public health domain. Yet this population demonstrates an elevated rate of comorbid mental health disorders and disruptive behavior disorders in particular. Given the elevated rates of behavior problems seen in children with ID, however, the validity and significance of a disruptive behavior diagnosis for this population remains unknown. In this light, the current study examines the dual diagnosis of Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD), one of the most common disruptive behavior disorders, in children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities over a 10-year time period. The study examines the clinical presentation, etiology and outcomes associated with ODD for children with and without ID to determine whether this is the same disorder for both populations. Findings suggest that children with ID and those with borderline intellectual functioning demonstrate higher rates of ODD and a higher comorbidity with other disruptive behaviors disorders such as Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. However, the disorder otherwise appears the same for children with and without ID, and the stability, age of onset, symptom presentation, etiology and outcomes (on measures of later behavior problems, friendships and risk-taking) do not differ for children with ODD with and without ID. Accordingly, the results of the current study suggest that ODD is the same disorder for children with and without ID and that the same interventions may be useful for both populations.