There is an increase of Latino/a/x students enrolling in higher education in the United States. Yet, Latino students’ retention and graduation rates continue to be significantly lower compared to White students (Musu-Gillette et al., 2016). In part, this problem stems from how higher education institutional practices have maintained one-size-fits-all models to support Latino/a/x students without considering the diversity within this complex group defined by their multiple and intersecting identities. Research shows that underrepresented students, such as Latino students, struggle in college and in their transition for different reasons (Carter, Hurtado, & Spuler, 1996; Harackiewicz et al., 2014; Hurtado, 1994). Therefore, higher education institutions must create a college community that promotes social and intellectual integration to strengthen student commitment (Gentry, 2014) and sustain updated efforts by dedicating time in collaborating with students (Espinoza & Espinoza, 2012) since both student and institutional variables influence college persistence (Titus, 2004). Since there is a lack of research and understanding of Latino/a/x students’ within-group differences, this study examined higher educational institutional practices aimed to support Latino/a/x students’ multiple and intersecting identities to identify how to enhance institutional efforts to ensure Latino/a/x student success. In particular, California Community College system was central to the study since the vast majority of Latino students enroll in these higher education institutions (California Postsecondary Education Commission, 2018a). The aim of this study was to argue that the relationship between student and institution must be intentional and well-coordinated since current higher education institutional practices designed to support the needs of students of color such as Latino/a/x students may not be fully supporting their multiple and intersecting identities. This dissertation stresses how critical it is for an institution to dig deeper into the Latino/a/x students’ lives to understand and validate their diverse experiences in order to provide intentional and sustainable practices where students can explore their complex identities and ultimately meet their holistic needs. Doing so can lead a higher education institution to proactively understand their Latino/a/x student population and improve institutional practices that may contribute to an overall student success including higher retention and graduation rates (Hurtado, 1994).

Undocumented Latinx students are currently one of the most disenfranchised racial/ethnic groups in the United States. As demography reaches critical mass levels in many states, visibility has triggered new economic and policy imperatives. The Latinx populations in many states have created a sense of urgency regarding socioeconomic concerns. This cultural shift is re-framing the debate on access to higher education, in-state tuition benefits and labor market prospects. These issues have reached a cultural tipping point, demonstrating that innovative research is needed to address the growing complexity undocumented Latino students face in the K-20 higher education pipeline. The theoretical framework of Appreciative Inquiry (AI) was examined through previous scholarship in a variety of disciplines and applied to qualitative and quantitative studies of undocumented students. This research examines the potential implications researching undocumented students through the lens of AI can have for social justice, leadership and cultivating a growth-mind set. The concept of generative capacity is explored as an impetus for greater social transformation. Policy considerations are discussed in relation to the unique challenges these students face. This review asserts further research is integral in addressing institutional barriers undocumented Latino students encounter navigating through complex educational, political and economic systems. A semi-structured qualitative interview protocol was implemented with 15 undocumented Latinx students utilizing the 4-D model of Appreciative Inquiry. Students selected transferred from a California Community College to a California 4-year public research institution. Findings indicated the experiences these students encounter during the transfer process, who supported them, and how institutional, community and family support was integral in successfully navigating this specific pipeline in the K-20 higher education system. Implications and future recommendations will also be presented in relation to undocumented student agency.

Undermatching refers to college ready students who select and enroll in colleges with selectivity levels significantly lower than their academic profile, resulting in attending a non-competitive college, a two-year college, or foregoing applying to college altogether. The current research trend examining the topic of Undermatching focuses on studies of low-income students in aggregate, ignoring the fastest growing racial/ethnic student demographic: Latinxs. Latinx1 students, as a subgroup, undermatch at the highest rate compared to all subgroups within the demographic of low-income, first generation students. While the majority of high-performing, low-income, Latinx students Undermatch, there is a small percentage of students from this demographic who avert undermatching and in fact properly match to selective colleges. This phenomenological study explored the behaviors, practices, and experiences, of 30 Mexican-American college sophomores (15 females and 15 males) whose demographic consisted of first-generation status, low-income, immigrant parents, English Learners, who earned admission to a highly selective college. This research study draws upon several theoretical frameworks to guide understanding of the ways in which this targeted demographic has the greatest potential to undermatch including Critical Race Theory, Cultural & Social Capital Theory, and Academic Invulnerability Theory. The study explores various environmental, psychological, and institutional factors, with emphasis on digital technology resources that impacted or influenced the college choice process of this target demographic. This study contributes to our understanding of the challenges, successful practices, and interventions that influenced and impacted participant’s pathway to a selective college. The purposeful sample was comprised of students who recently graduated from public high school in Arizona, California, Nevada, and Texas. The qualitative methodology consisted of individual, semi-structured interviews, and a Qualtrics Survey.

Keywords: undermatching; Latinx students; low-income students; first-generation college students; highly selective colleges; postsecondary success.

1See “Key Terms” for definition of Latinx.

ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION

Dual Language Teachers' Approaches to Engaging Latino ELL Students in Elementary Education

by

Irma Fernández

Doctor of Education in Leadership

University of California, San Diego, 2016

California State University, San Marcos, 2016

Professor Frances Contreras, Chair

The U.S. Census Bureau predicts that by 2021, one of four U.S. students will be Latino. Research points to an increase in students identified as English Language Learners (ELLs), thus providing a glimpse of tomorrow’s demographics and framing the reality of the classroom of the future. Schools are examining their partnerships with families from linguistically diverse backgrounds. These partnerships call upon all stakeholders to examine the ways dual language teachers are prepared to educate this growing student population. The literature review in this study examined the troubling picture of Latinos as being the least educated of all major ethnic groups, whose achievement gap has minimally narrowed, and the educators who explore ways to improve their knowledge of instructional practices to strengthen communication with Latino families. One of the major challenges that confronts educators is to work collaboratively with diverse families whose cultural perspectives may differ from their own. Moll’s (1992) Funds of Knowledge and Culturally Responsive Instruction Theory provides the conceptual framework for this study.

This qualitative study examined dual language educators’ understanding of effective culturally competent practices and instructional strategies for working with Latino ELL students. Data was collected through interviews with ten dual language teachers who earned a master’s degree, multiple subject teaching credentials, and acquired a BCLAD to be highly qualified to instruct in a dual language immersion school.

Key words: English language learners, funds of knowledge; cultural awareness, cultural proficient leadership, two-way language immersion/dual language immersion, educational partnerships, cross-cultural competence, Hispanic/Latino.

The undocumented college student population in the United States reflects a similar pattern of growth relative to the overall population of undocumented individuals (Goo, 2015). While the undocumented population in the U.S. has not recently increased substantially, and in some cases the undocumented population has actually declined (Baker & Rytina, 2012), there is a growing need to address the limited opportunities available to undocumented youth after graduation from college. College students face challenges finding a career path after graduation, they face the phenomenon of underemployment (Abel, Deitz, & Su, 2014) and these challenges become more difficult when a student is undocumented and lacks permanent work authorization to be employed, and face the threat of deportation (Autin et al., 2018). This study aimed to explore the post-graduation experiences of students who went to college while undocumented. Using a conceptual framework that includes Transition Theory (Schlossberg, 1981) and Community Cultural Wealth (Yosso, 2005), the research design used narrative inquiry to gain a deep understanding of the experiences of these students and their journeys. A review of the literature in this study addressed the following domains of literature, as they relate to undocumented individuals: policy and legislation, demographics of undocumented communities, and a highlight of California-specific factors. This study includes a literature review of the following domains of knowledge: policy and legislation, demographics of undocumented students, a California-specific review, the focus of the study that highlights challenges and barriers for undocumented students, and a conceptual framework that includes Schlossberg’s Transition Theory (1981), and Community Cultural Wealth (Yosso, 2005). Participants included those who have successfully graduated from the University of California system and are or were undocumented during some or all of their time in college. The narratives of participants guided the inquiry and study findings.

California is home to the largest Latinx population in the United States (Passel et al., 2022) and to one of the most productive agricultural regions in the world: the San Joaquin Valley (EPA, 2021). In this rural region, Latinx students face significant barriers to college preparation, participation, and completion (Contreras, 2015). Yet, these higher education equity issues facing rural Latinx students are rarely considered in research because Latinx students in Western geographies are seldom identified as “rural.” This dissertation examines the intersections between race, racism, and rurality in the college access and choice processes of rural Latinx students from the San Joaquin Valley. Multiple theoretical frameworks are employed to conceptualize issues of race, space, and college choice, including Critical Race Spatial Analysis (Vélez & Solórzano, 2017), college-conocimiento (Acevedo-Gil, 2017), and Chicana Feminist Epistemology (Delgado Bernal, 1998). A convergent mixed methods research design was used to collect and analyze both qualitative and quantitative spatial data. In this study, 16 rural Latinx high school seniors from six communities in Tulare County served as research collaborators. For the qualitative strand of the study, rural Latinx students provided documents related to their college choice processes, engaged in two pláticas (Fierros & Delgado Bernal, 2016), constructed asset-based college access maps, and participated in one walking plática (Gaxiola Serrano, 2019). The qualitative data guided the collection and analysis of secondary quantitative and spatial data from various sources, which were then mapped using ArcGIS, a geographic information systems software. The maps produced displayed the sociospatial relationships between Latinx identity, racialized rural space, and college (in)opportunities. These maps were then “ground-truthed” (Vélez & Solórzano, 2017) by the rural Latinx research collaborators to produce a new set of maps that more accurately reflected the sociospatial narratives of rural Latinx youth in pursuit of higher education. Across the various data sources, findings demonstrate that rural Latinx youth navigate college (in)opportunity and constricted college choices because of the white, conservative, and anti-immigrant sociopolitical context of the San Joaquin Valley. This dissertation provides implications for researchers, policymakers, and practitioners seeking to remedy the spatialization of systems of oppression in rural Latinx communities.

Only 5% of the graduates from medical schools identify as Latinx (AAMC, 2019). While, in the state of California, the growing Latinx and bilingual community is expected to exceed 40% of the state’s population with only 5% Latinx physicians (Martinez et al., 2019). Diversity of the physician workforce is important because underrepresented students are more likely to work as a physician in underserved communities, such as urban and rural communities (Mitchell & Lassiter, 2006). The field of higher education is lacking research on Latinx student persistence in premedical studies in higher education. Moreover, the literature on underrepresented STEM students is lacking an analysis of the cultural assets that Students of Color bring with them into STEM. Through this dissertation, I advance STEM research by applying asset-based theoretical frameworks and culturally relevant methodology in order to center Latinx first-generation premedical students voices and experiences.

Guided by the following theories, Community Cultural Wealth (CCW) (Yosso, 2005), Latinx STEM Student Success Model (Rendón et al., 2019) and Chicana/Latina Feminist Epistemology (Fierros & Delgado Bernal, 2016), this dissertation aims to take on an assetbased approach and use culturally-sensitive methodology to understand the persistence of Latinx students in medicine. Yosso’s CCW (2005) provides a foundation in viewing students of color entering the college environment with cultural assets and to further center Latinx premedical students, the Latinx Student STEM Success Model (Rendón et al., 2019) is applied to explore Latinx cultural assets, strengths developed from families/communities and knowledge that Latinx students have gained that are related to the Latinx asset (Rendón, Nora & Kanagala, 2014). Additionally, I employ pláticas, a culturally-sensitive methodology that draws from Chicana/Latina Feminist Epistemology (Fierros & Delgado Bernal, 2016), which acknowledges and centers Chicana/Latina scholars way of knowing and knowledge (Fierros & Delgado Bernal, 2016). This study is based on twenty four Latinx premed students from a large research university, an emerging Hispanic-Serving Institution. Each participant completed two pláticas, for a total of forty-eight pláticas, observations of the Latinx PremedInitiative sessions and website content review of activities.

Findings are presented in the three articles focusing on cultural assets of Latinx students during their undergraduate years, such as navigational, resistance, giving back and a methodological article. This study presents novel findings of the use of cultural assets of Latinx students in premedical studies. Latinx premedical students use the following, navigational and resistance asset as they navigated the COVID-19 pandemic and giving back asset is related to student’s physician career aspirations to serve underserved communities and address health inequities. Additionally, pláticas methodology is introduced to call for a reframing of methodologies in STEM education research to provide a culturally relevant methodology to engage Latinx Students and advance STEM education research on Latinx students. Research on Latinx STEM students has focused on the attrition of Latinx students in STEM, however I find that Latinx students are persisting and creating meaningful pathways for themselves that is inclusive of their cultural background.

This dissertation is significant because it provides an asset-based approach and culturally sensitive use of pláticas on Latinx students to identify the cultural assets Latinx students use as they persists towards medical school. I also provide recommendations for institutions of higher education to embrace and leverage cultural assets, to reimagine graduatepathways for Latinx students to persist towards their medical dreams.

Today’s public research university is constantly required to respond to financial,

regulatory, technological, political, social, and academic pressures. Frequently, the

response is to initiate strategic planning and innovation efforts. The success of those

efforts rely largely upon execution which is dependent upon staff at every level of the

organization. This qualitative phenomenological study used appreciative inquiry as its

method of inquiry as well as its analytical lens to explore the experiences of Black staff

in various roles at a primarily non-Black public R1 research university. Participants

were actively involved in the execution of plans developed to address various areas and

objectives, but not very involved in the process of providing input for inclusion in any of

the plans. Leadership and supervision are critical influencers of drivers as well as drivers

of staff engagement.

California has a history of bilingual education, but once that was eliminated with Proposition 227 in 1998, dual language education programs took its place. Dual Language Education programs are the teaching of academic content in two different languages. They have been expanding nationwide with several different languages being incorporated into this model, such as Spanish, Mandarin, Vietnamese, German, French, Portuguese, and Arabic. The draw for these programs has been to have students become better citizens in a global economy and to be able to participate within a diverse society. One of the concerns in regards to the expansion of dual language education is where the programs are being implemented and whom they are intended to serve. The trend is for affluent neighborhoods to have greater access to these dual language programs where there are a lower number of English learners and low-income students. These two demographic groups are not included in these dual language programs, which are considered advanced and rigorous. This case study is an in-depth look into one elementary school district in southern California with a high number of dual language programs, with many of them in affluent communities.

Current English language teaching research in Mexico has shown that junior high school students are not learning English and that English teachers lack linguistic and pedagogical skills to teach the language. Research has evidenced system-wide factors contributing to low learning outcomes such as teacher shortage, poor working conditions, limited teaching resources, inadequate school support, and misaligned professional development. However, little has been said about initial teacher preparation. Therefore, this research sought to understand how English teachers in junior high schools in Mexico viewed their initial preparation program and whether the realities of practice in their specific teaching context match that preparation.

The study drew on questionnaire data from junior high school English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers in three different regions of Mexico—northern, central, and southern states, from urban, suburban, and rural classrooms, including three different junior high school modalities. The aim was to understand how initial teacher preparation equipped teachers with language knowledge, teaching knowledge, and contextual knowledge for their practice. This study argues that initial teacher preparation, although a critical component for success in the classroom, has been largely treated in the periphery. This treatment may have resulted in weak initial preparation of English teachers.

This study presented both qualitative and quantitative evidence about the realities English teachers faced in their current practice as they attempted to implement the new National English Program in basic education. Some realities seemed to have been ignored and/or inadequately addressed during initial teacher preparation. Therefore, the evidence presented sought to inform English teachers, school administrators, and policy makers about the situation in the trenches. The study also sought to contribute to the current conversation about the direction and content of initial English teacher preparation programs in view of the diverse teaching contexts in the country.