The Keban Dam Rescue Project was initiated in 1967 to record and study the history of the Keban region in Eastern Turkey about to be inundated. The project brought scholars of several disciplines together to document, in a relatively limited amount of time, the past and the landscape of this threatened Upper Euphrates area. The international and multidisciplinary salvage excavations are perceived today as a turning point for Turkish archaeology. The archaeological excavations seem to mark a rather unstable moment within the history of Turkish archaeology. Nevertheless, if teams were operating under different theoretical paradigms, in the end, they all agreed that knowledge about the history and prehistory of the Keban region needed be produced scientifically, that is in an organized and systematic manner. This dissertation scrutinizes some of archaeology's taken-for-granted scientific techniques which contribute to the emergence of the field laboratory. As experiments are performed in the outdoors laboratory of archaeology, several divides between nature and culture, present and past, the local and the universal simultaneously occur. Archaeologists thus define their object of research as relating to the universal and past culture of humankind, disregarding other objects of potential research belonging to nature or to the local present. The rescue project at Keban allowed certain kinds of evidence to be selected and made visible while others were, if not completely invisible, marginalized. In the Keban site reports, knowledge about a site is placed to the foreground while the conditions of its production are placed to the sidelines. In other words, as archaeologists make their discoveries visible to the world, they simultaneously make themselves invisible. In addition, local people only make unexpected appearances on the margins of the reports. This dissertation uses the scientific accounts of archaeology to make some of these submerged stories come back to the surface. Viewed from a different perspective --or from a different "situated" stand-point-- the agency of archaeologists, the local stories from villages, the negative effects of dam construction, among other things supposedly excluded from the scientific process of archaeology, can be retrieved and placed to the foreground.

This dissertation investigates the social role played by terracotta figurines in the Greek-Mesopotamian cross-cultural interactions of Hellenistic Babylonia. Previous studies of Hellenistic Babylonian terracotta figurines have largely been organized as typological catalogues, with an emphasis placed on organizing the vast number of figurines within an understood dichotomy of "Greek" or "Babylonian". This dissertation makes two unique contributions to the study of these figurines. The first is to highlight the limitations of typology, an organizational tool that has the effect of privileging some features of the figurines over others, as well as using those features to cement figurines into rigid, artificial hierarchies. Through deconstructing typologies, this dissertation allows for the methodological substitution of more flexible, "real life" systems of categorization. The second major contribution of this dissertation is to investigate how Hellenistic Babylonian figurines actively participated in social interactions that were organized not only along the lines of Greek vs. Babylonian ethnicity, but also other social roles such as gender, age, class, and profession.

In this dissertation, typologies are replaced by a new methodology of investigating "trends" of similarity and difference, which can be used to access object identities and trace entanglements of human-object interaction based on the shifting, mutable affiliations suggested by bundled features of the figurines. I address these methodological and historiographic considerations in Part I of the dissertation. In Part II of this dissertation, these methodological approaches are used to trace the "trends" of similarity in the Hellenistic Babylonian figurines. Figurines are treated as interconnected social actors: through the sharing of particular features, some figurines have closer associations than others; however, no figurines are assigned as part of a set "type". Rather, the shared features of figurines with visual, technological, or contextual similarities are interrogated, in order to determine which assemblages were the most popular, and thus bore widely-accepted meanings. Chapters 4, 5, and 6 each address a different (but interconnected) aspect of the figurine corpus. Chapter 4 contains a discussion of male social roles and gender ambiguities. Chapter 5 contains a discussion of human-figurine interactions conditioned by the materialities of the objects, with particular reference to figurine features that either beckon the human interlocutor into closer interaction or, conversely, discourage tactile and visual engagement. Chapter 6 contains a discussion of the closely entwined visualizations of many female figurines, and the social implications of that cohesive visual ideal. Within each chapter, the interpretation of figurine trends are approached through such theoretically-informed lenses as the social construction of gender, the psychological effect of miniature scale, and the controlling power of the Gaze.

This object-agency approach to studying social interactions between humans and figurines in Hellenistic Babylonia leads to the second major contribution of this dissertation: ethnic identities of "Greek" and "Babylonian" may not have been primary, or even particularly important, in all social interactions. The terracotta figurines both generated and reflected new pathways of social meaning-making in Hellenistic Babylonia. In many cases, these figurines were not particularly adherent to earlier, pre-Hellenistic motifs and meanings. Rather, "trendy" figurines tended to have been those that engaged with aspects of both cultural traditions, frequently becoming hybridized in the process. This finding indicates that the scholarly world's focus on determining the political roles, power balances, and social identities of "Greeks" and "Babylonians" in these Hellenistic communities may be misdirected. In the conclusion of this dissertation, I argue that we need to dramatically rethink our understanding of Hellenistic Babylonian cross-cultural interactions by placing less emphasis on the role of ethnicity, and more importance on investigating the social significance of other identity roles.

The scholarly contribution of my dissertation is to both begin a broader exploration of identity in Hellenistic Babylonian society, and also to demonstrate how material culture - such as, but not limited to, terracotta figurines - can be used in innovative and theoretically-informed ways to further explore the "hows" and "whys" of identity formation.

This dissertation examines the packaging and presentation of the Battle of Kadesh as a meaningful Event to both a local Egyptian and a wider Near Eastern audience at pivotal moments in time. In 1275 BCE the Egyptian pharaoh, Ramses II, faced off against the Hittite king, Muwatalli, at the northern Levantine citadel of Kadesh along the border between the two great empires. This confrontation remains one of the most well studied battles of pre-classical times as a result of the lavish attention with which Ramses II commemorated it upon his temple walls in Egypt. Still visible today at Abu Simbel, Abydos, Karnak, Luxor, and the Ramesseum are the monumental reliefs depicting Ramses II charging into the chaotic fray of combat on his chariot. All around him Egyptian troops attack the Hittite army beside the Orontes River, which circumscribes the fortified citadel of Kadesh.

Event is capitalized in this dissertation to refer to the ongoing construction and understanding of the Battle of Kadesh as embedded within specific social contexts. Such an approach emphasizes the temporal duration of Events, arguing that a crucial component of Events is their continued resonance in the material (archaeological and/or historical) record. This dissertation focuses upon three encounters with the Battle of Kadesh reliefs through time to demonstrate the Battle’s Event-status: The initial carving of the Battle of Kadesh reliefs on the temple walls of the Ramesseum during the reign of Ramses II; the later addition to the Ramesseum of the Egyptian-Hittite peace treaty negotiated in the twenty-first year of Ramses II’s reign; and lastly, the Neo-Assyrian army’s encounter with this corpus on their campaign in the Theban region during the seventh century BCE.

This dissertation argues that the physicality of the reliefs has the effect of creating (as opposed to reflecting) the Battle of Kadesh. In asking how the internal elements of the reliefs communicate with one another and how the reliefs communicate with their surrounding environment, this study demonstrates that meaning is constantly negotiated through the broader social, ideological, and physical world. In so doing, it recognizes the role the reliefs play as active participants in various social and temporal settings, and it evaluates their efficacy as imperialistic and diplomatic tools utilized during the reign of Ramses II and the reigns of the Neo-Assyrian kings in constructing royal ideologies.

Chapters 5-7 of this dissertation landscape the reliefs at the aforementioned moments in time in order to examine their shifting resonances. This includes a description of the permanent changes to the physical landscape of the Ramesseum (such as the addition of the Silver Tablet Treaty to the temple walls or the weathering of the stone surfaces), as well as the appearance of temporary objects (such as festival accouterment) that would impact how the reliefs mean to different audiences. Likewise each chapter describes the cultural and political expectations of each audience in order to demonstrate that Events comprise the encounter between both the landscape of the relief corpus and the different audiences that visit them. These diverse encounters reveal precisely how much an Event’s meaning can change through time, highlighting how modern historical reconstructions of the Battle of Kadesh are just one more stage in the Event’s making.

Abstract

Materializing Apotropaia: The Entangled Body and Neo-Assyrian Magical Arts, 9th–7th BCE

by

Miriam K. Said

Doctor of Philosophy in the History of Art

University of California, Berkeley

Professor Marian H. Feldman, Co-Chair

Professor Andrew Stewart, Co-Chair

This dissertation explores how material apotropaia—objects meant to ward off evil such as figurines, amulets, and seals—depicting the Mesopotamian demons Lamaštu and Pazuzu were conceived as magically efficacious in the first millennium BCE. Departing from prior studies that examine these objects through philological, iconographic, and typological lenses, it uses phenomenological and materialist approaches. This dissertation foregrounds the intersection of human-object relationships, material value, presence, scale, and inscribed texts in order to reconstruct vibrant histories that explain how these objects were animated and magically functional.

Chapter One discusses how specific properties of obsidian were harnessed in the fight against the demon Lamaštu. Lamaštu amulets constitute some of the oldest forms of apotropaia in ancient Mesopotamia. Among the 97 published amulets are a rare few made from obsidian, a volcanic glass with a long history of use in the ancient Near East for utilitarian tool production and elite prestige goods. The chapter explores how the material characteristics of obsidian, its inherent luminosity, and the cultural value attached to this stone were brought to bear on the apotropaic function of the object. The amulet in the presence of light is transformed into a lustrous, nearly translucent glass. Such a transformation, I argue, was central to its ability to limit Lamaštu’s malevolent capabilities. The concentrated illumination resulted in an erasure of Lamaštu’s image from the surface of the amulet, underscoring the logic of obsidian for what amounts to a material exorcism.

Chapter Two investigates a group of Pazuzu apotropaia that consists of three different types of body ornaments: fibulae, pendants, and seals. All these works were cast in bronze and all incorporated the disembodied head of Pazuzu, considered to be a primary locus of his power. Their function as dress items implicates a relationship to the human body, and this chapter explores how these Pazuzu ornaments worked in and on the body by probing three particular facets of the objects and their demonic subject. The first is a close focus on Pazuzu’s character as a wind demon. As “king of the evil lilû-demons,” Pazuzu had a close mythological association with winds, which were believed to carry both disease and malevolence and to be a pathway for divine communication, in addition to functioning as important structural and geographic principles. The second significant criterion for my study is the materiality of bronze. I argue that the materiality of bronze – as a medium characterized by both its fluidity and hardness, and therefore by perpetual regeneration – was suitably potent for capturing the image of Pazuzu, a fundamentally intangible force, in metallic stasis. The final criterion is the scale of these objects, which I discuss through the lens of miniaturization theory. Pazuzu, as a demonic force and as part of larger, culturally significant phenomena, is reduced to a scale whereby human comprehension is achievable. The miniature size of the dress items and their presence on the human body made it possible for the person upon whom these objects were placed to exercise control over the demon

Chapter Three looks specifically at figurines of Pazuzu that have been inscribed with incantations. This discussion puts these objects in dialogue with other types of apotropaic figurines that were discovered buried beneath the floors at significant junctures of Assyrian homes. These predominantly clay figurines were ritually prescribed to be efficacious while essentially invisible from human perception. I argue that Pazuzu figurines complemented their magic above ground, Pazuzu’s very power vested in the perception of his demonic presence. Furthermore, the inscriptions and their relationship to the visual and physical features of the figurines amplified this power. The inscriptions, Standard Incantations A and B, recount Pazuzu’s mythological lineage and his demonic prowess. I argue that the inscriptions were efficacious to literate and non-literate viewers alike, whether for their semantic content, their complementarity with the visual image, or for the haptic engagement engendered by their formal characteristics as iconic text. The chapter ends with a meditation on the medium of clay and how its materiality and connection to beliefs about creation bolstered the efficaciously inscribed body of the demon.

Central to this dissertation is the importance of human engagement with, and perception of, the specific materials used in the creation of Lamaštu and Pazuzu apotropaia. More importantly, the dynamic of control – of production processes, targeted manipulation of material and form, the visibility of images, and ultimately of the demons themselves – was especially vital in accessing and deploying the power of Lamaštu and Pazuzu apotropaia

This dissertation investigates the economic systems operating during the Middle Bronze Age (2000-1600 BCE) at Kamid el-Loz, a decentralized settlement situated in the Beqa’a Valley of Lebanon. The scope is to examine trade structures that involved peripheral exchange centers found throughout the Beqa’a Valley and their interaction with the commercial hubs of the Lebanese coast and the hinterland settlements of southwestern Syria. During this time, settlements throughout the ancient Near East witnessed a process of regeneration that followed the collapse of Early Bronze Age IV (c. 2200-2000 BCE) societies. The development of more complex economic networks and political relationships, as well as the arrival of new ethnic groups, characterized this renewal.

This dissertation sets forth two main research questions: How can the material culture and the geographical setting of Kamid el-Loz shed light on the economic systems of the central Levant and southwestern Syria? And, to what degree was the Beqa’a Valley integrated into the cultural milieu of the Eastern Mediterranean during the Middle Bronze Age? To answer these queries, the ceramic vessels found in the storage rooms of the Kamid el-Loz palace were analyzed and thematic maps using Geographic Information System (GIS) software were created to reconstruct the commercial paths through which materials circulated.

The results from this study indicate that Kamid el-Loz had a well structured palatial organization that shared the same international exchange networks that involved the coastal Middle Bronze Age centers. The Beqa’a Valley was linked to this greater system of trade through paths used to surmount the obstacles posed to circulation by the mountain ranges that border this area. Interactions between these different regions are visible in the material culture recovered at Kamid el-Loz, which evidences a process of adaptation and selection of non-local motifs.

One contribution of this project to the archaeology of the Middle Bronze Age Levant is the reconstruction of the ceramic vessel economy of Kamid el-Loz. In addition, the recreation of ancient networking trails in the Beqa’a Valley will provide a model useful for the understanding of exchange systems across the region, especially in the central Levant. Finally, determining the level of foreign interaction among settlements belonging to three different geographic areas will contribute to the social sciences by providing insight into how ancient societies received and reacted to external cultural influences.

In the ancient Near East, the Sinai, the Negev, southern Jordan and northwestern Arabia

constituted a marginal and peripheral landscape, a liminal land considered both lifeless

and teeming with fantastic creatures and divine powers. However, the position of this

region between the more populated areas of Egypt, the Levant, Mesopotamia, and the

Arabian Peninsula marked this landscape as a crossroads for materials and people, a

movement of phenomena perpetuated mainly by local mobile pastoral communities. As

such, roadside ritual comprised a major expression and practice of multiple ideologies

about the land from earliest times. Sites of ritual along roadsides harnessed multiple,

overlapping, and intersecting senses of liminality, the potency and danger of being

inbetween, to lay claim to the land and offer protection against human and suprahuman

dangers. In this context, roadside ritual sites operated as confluences of interaction for

multiple communities and religious traditions in this region. The ways in which these

communities understood and experienced this landscape often drastically differed, and

the interaction of these communities generated new and distinct ways of seeing.

This dissertation utilizes textual, ethnographic, and archaeological materials to explore

these phenomena in the sixth through the first millennium BCE, with a focus on the early

first millennium BCE. This period sees the rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in ancient

Iraq, which came to dominate much of the ancient Near East in the ninth, eighth, and seventh

centuries BCE. Imperial domination inscribed the land with new settlement patterns,

monumental architecture, and fortifications that recursively interacted with the ancient

meshworks of pilgrimage, subsistence, memory, and liminality already engraved within

the landscape. Two ritual sites, Kuntillet ʾAjrûd in the northeastern Sinai (eighth century

BCE) and Ḥorvat Qitmit in the northern Negev (seventh century BCE) act as case studies that

both manifest these ancient traditions of movement and interaction and presage their

acute intensification in later Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Early Islamic, and Ottoman

contexts.