While there is a well-established body of literature that documents the role of the school context in informing adolescents’ perceptions of unfair treatment at school, little research investigates how interactions at the neighborhood level also shape adolescents’ perceptions of school-based peer and adult racial/ethnic discrimination. The current dissertation focused on examining the Neighborhood–School Spill-Over, a novel framework, encompassing three different, but interrelated approaches for understanding the role of the neighborhood context in informing Latina/o students’ perceptions of school-based adult and peer racial/ethnic discrimination. Dissertation Study #1 (Approach 1 of the Neighborhood–School Spill-Over framework) aimed to examine whether distance (how far students lived from school in miles) moderated the relationship between neighborhood and school Latina/o representation and students’ perceptions of unfair treatment by adults and peers at school. It was hypothesized that Latina/o students living further away from school would report lower perceptions of unfair treatment by both peers and adults at school if they lived in neighborhoods with a high concentration of Latina/os, even when there was lower Latina/o representation at school. Dissertation Study #2 (Approach 2 of the Neighborhood–School Spill-Over framework) aimed to examine whether the percentage of students who live in the same neighborhood and go to the same school, percentage of same-ethnic neighborhood peers, informed adolescents’ perceptions around unfair treatment by adults at school. The proposed hypothesis was that having a greater percentage of same-ethnic peers who live in the same community and attend the same school context would be protective. The overarching goal of Dissertation Study #3 (Approach 3 of the Neighborhood–School Spill-Over framework) was to examine how perceptions of neighborhood discrimination (i.e., by police and store clerks) affected Latina/o students’ perceptions of school adult racial/ethnic discrimination and whether neighborhood collective efficacy, feeling like people in the community “have your back,” was protective. It was anticipated that while perceiving greater discrimination in the neighborhood would predict higher perceptions of unfair treatment by adults at school, living in efficacious neighborhoods would buffer this relationship.

Data for this dissertation came from the UCLA Middle and High School Diversity Project (MSDP/HSDP), a larger ongoing longitudinal study that sought to examine the benefits and challenges of ethnic diversity in urban middle schools. MSDP/HSDP participants were 5,991 racially/ethnically diverse students who were recruited from 26 urban middle schools in northern and southern California who then transitioned into over 440 high schools all over the state of California. To conduct analyses for these three dissertation studies, students’ home addresses were geocoded and cross-classified multilevel models were run.

Findings from Dissertation Study #1 showed that as Latina/o eighth-grade students (n = 756) attended schools with fewer same-ethnic peers, living further away was protective against perceptions of peer racial/ethnic discrimination, when there was high Latina/o representation in the neighborhood context. Findings from Dissertation Study #2 found that as Latina/o representation at school decreased, Latina/o eighth-grade students (n = 856) reported higher perceptions of school adult racial/ethnic discrimination, and this was particularly more pronounced for students with a lower percentage of same-ethnic neighborhood peers. As Latina/o representation at school decreased, students reported lower perceptions of discrimination by adults at school when they had a greater percentage of same-ethnic neighborhood peers, highlighting the protective nature of same-ethnic neighborhood peers. And finally, findings from Dissertation Study #3 found that high school students (10th-grade Latina/o students; n = 540) reported higher perceptions of unfair treatment by adults at school when they reported higher perceptions of neighborhood discrimination. While findings from Dissertation Study #3 did not find that efficacious neighborhoods buffered students’ perceptions of discrimination by adults at school, future research should continue to examine the neighborhood-school spill over to thoroughly unpack the neighborhood characteristics that serve as risk and protective factors for adolescents of color, specifically in marginalized communities. The larger implications of this dissertation research are to go beyond understanding the barriers that exist in the neighborhood context and to center the benefits and wealth that exist in marginalized communities for adolescents of color as a way of creating more welcoming school environments.

ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION

Crossing the Special-General Education Divide at the Post-Secondary Level:

Observations and Outcomes of Co-Teaching across Curricula

By

Talya Louise Drescher

Doctor of Philosophy in Special Education

University of California, Los Angeles, 2015

California State University, Los Angeles, 2015

Professor Sandra Graham, Chair

This dissertation contains two case studies aimed at expanding the body of literature on the topic of collaborative teaching in pre-service education programs designed to prepare general and special education teachers in collaboratively taught courses. The intention of the study was to document the process of preparing for and teaching collaborative education courses, and to determine students' perception of collaboration, inclusion and disability knowledge as a result of taking the course. Two different sessions (Study 1 and Study 2) of collaborative teaching run by different pairs of teachers were each studied over a 10-week quarter at a large public university. Multiple sources of data were collected over the 10 week quarters, including observations, focus groups, document review, and pre- and post-course survey responses.

Study 1 professors largely demonstrated the "one teach, one assist" method of collaborative teaching, most often delivering lectures independent of one another. Study 2 professors meticulously planned each session before class to model co-teaching and utilize the infusion method of teaching collaboration and disability for six shorter segments during the 10 week quarter.

Qualitative findings suggest that there are positive student outcomes regardless of collaborative model utilized. Benefits include an opportunity for students to witness professors modeling collaboration; a practice required of many general and special educators to include children with disabilities in general education classes, and an opportunity often missing in pre-service programs. By using the infusion model of teaching disability as modeled in Study 2, positive outcomes increased further. Quantitative findings demonstrated significantly increased knowledge of disability for Study 2 general education participants. Additionally, qualitative findings show among Study 2 participants, a greater willingness to collaborate with peers in class and in the workplace.

Ultimately, modeling collaboration and a positive attitude toward disability, collaboration, and inclusion provides professors an opportunity to help guide and shape pre-service teachers' attitudes toward collaboration. Additionally, the infusion model of teaching disability shows great promise for providing disability knowledge to general education pre-service students who may otherwise receive minimal disability related coursework.

This cross-sectional study examined the influence of cross-ethnic friendships on students’ sense of school belonging and safety, as well as whether this relationship differed by ethnicity and students’ ethnic representation in their school. It further explored whether friendships with numerical majority peers in particular were related to these outcomes. The sample was comprised of 2,227 sixth grade students (40.2% Latino, 20.8% Asian, 21.6% African American, 17.4% White) from 26 urban middle schools in California. Findings revealed that a higher proportion of cross-ethnic friendships was associated with greater school belonging for numerical minority White students, and lower school belonging for numerical majority White and African American students. Friendships with numerical majority peers were positively associated with school belonging and safety for White students. Finally, having a higher proportion of cross-ethnic friendships was associated with greater perceived safety for numerical minority students. Implications for promoting cross-ethnic peer interactions are discussed.

This dissertation consists of two studies that examined the development of same-ethnic friendship preferences over the course of middle school and its predictors and consequences. Both studies draw from a longitudinal school-based study of about 6,000 ethnically diverse early adolescents’ social and psychological adjustment in 26 schools that varied in ethnic diversity. I employed a measure of same-ethnic friendship preference used in past research that accounts for the probability of having a same-ethnic friend, given the opportunities for forming both same- and cross-ethnic friendships in school. In Study 1, I examined the developmental trajectory of same-ethnic friendship preference and considered the compositional and organizational features of schools and classrooms that lead to these preferences. Results from latent growth curve models revealed that same-ethnic friendship preference increased over the course of middle school and that these friendship preferences were shaped by both the school and classroom ethnic context, above and beyond availability. At the start of middle school when friendship networks are beginning to form, having fewer same-ethnic peers in schools that were less ethnically diverse predicted steeper increases in same-ethnic friendship preference. This interactive effect of school ethnic diversity and same-ethnic peers in school did not predict changes in friendship preferences. Rather, greater school ethnic diversity predicted steeper increases in same-ethnic friendship preference over time. Taking a more dynamic approach to understanding the ethnic composition, I also examined how youth are organized within schools in their academic classes. Results revealed more complex and longitudinal associations. African American and Asian youth, groups that are strongly academically stereotyped, who were underrepresented in honors classes showed steeper increases in same-ethnic friendship over time. In Study 2, I evaluated the interplay of same-ethnic friendship preference and ethnic identity and intergroup attitudes over the course of middle school, and whether these associations depended on the school ethnic context and ethnicity. The results revealed that for ethnic minority youth, same-ethnic friendship preference at the start of middle school predicted less steep decreases in ethnic identity over time. This effect did not vary by proportion of same-ethnic peers in school. The effect of ethnic identity on changes in same-ethnic friendship preferences was weaker, and only found among Asian youth when they had few same-ethnic peers in school. The longitudinal associations between same-ethnic friendship preference and attitudes favoring one’s ingroup were weaker. Although friendships and attitudes were positively correlated at the start of middle school, their slopes indicated that they did not develop together over time. Additionally, a friendship selection effect was found such that attitudes favoring one’s ingroup predicted steeper increases in same-ethnic friendship preference over time. However, friendships did not predict greater biases in attitudes over time.

Taken together, by considering the school structural and organizational features that lead to same-ethnic friendship preference, as well as the longitudinal associations between friendship preference, ethnic identity, and intergroup attitudes over the course of middle school, this dissertation identified how both formal and informal aspects of schools can lead to greater ethnic boundaries between youth, and the factors that can diminish those boundaries. Implications for prejudice reduction interventions and creating more inclusive school environments are discussed.

Young people have long resisted systemic oppressions that undermine their and their communities' wellbeing. One way to conceptualize resistance to oppression is critical consciousness (CC). CC is a process through which individuals develop their analysis of structural oppressions and build their abilities to transform them (Freire, 1973). CC supports many important developmental outcomes for young people. Yet, the effects of CC on youth’s wellbeing are unclear, with research on emerging adult college students (EACS) especially unclear (Maker Castro et al., 2022). Wellbeing is defined to encompass one’s mental, socioemotional, and physical health. Through CC development, EACS may feel more hopeful about their ability to resist oppressive forces. Alternatively, and/or additionally, CC may lead to increased wellbeing challenges as EACS grappled with the magnitude of oppressive systems. The recent sociopolitical context, including the inequitable impact of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, coupled with heightened anti-Asian and anti-LGBTQ+ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer/questioning and other sexual and gender minority youth) discrimination, a global movement against racial injustice, and a highly polarized national political climate, may have significantly challenged EACS’ wellbeing. The relationship between CC and wellbeing for EACS may be further influenced by identities and experiences within oppressive systems. Therefore, this dissertation seeks to understand the ways in which CC development may inform wellbeing among diverse EACS within the recent sociopolitical context, and how salient experiences and identities can influence this relationship.

The dissertation includes two complementary studies to examine the ways in which CC and wellbeing develop over time in relation to EACS’ identities and experiences within oppressive systems. Drawing from sociopolitical development theory (SPD), Study 1 quantitatively examined CC development using survey data from a national cohort of emerging adult college students collected in April (n=707), July (n=544), and November (n=461) of 2020. The sample (61% women; 29% LGBQ+) was 54% White, 20% Asian/Pacific Islander, 9% Latinx, 5% Black, 1% Middle Eastern/North African, and 10% multiracial/ethnic. Latent profile transition analysis (LPTA) with auxiliary variables was used to identify patterns of CC development using the Short Critical Consciousness Scale (ShoCC; Diemer et al., 2020) and examine how patterns were associated with youth’s gender and sexual identities, discriminatory experiences, and wellbeing (i.e., stress, anxiety, hopefulness). Results indicated four CC profiles. Having, and especially growing in, CC during the year 2020 was associated with stress and anxiety. Women and LBGQ+ youth were likely to be in these groups, which reported more experiences with discrimination. Study 2 used thematic analysis of interview data and an inductive-deductive approach to coding to explore the CC and wellbeing experiences between 2019 and 2022 for 27 diverse EACS (52% cisgender women; 48% LGBQ+; 33% White, 33% Asian, 15% Black, 11% Multiracial, 7% Latinx), considering their identities and experiences with discrimination. Findings highlighted that wellbeing was a precursor, motivator, and consequence of CC development, creating a reciprocal and recursive relationship between domains. EACS experienced CC and wellbeing challenges related to developmental transitions associated with college as well as sociopolitical oppressions manifested in the greater climate and more proximal contexts. Together, these studies paint a complicated story ending on the cautiously optimistic note: EACS who grew in their CC between 2019-2022 ultimately found ways to support wellbeing, though developmental and sociopolitical challenges continued to be a threat.

Existing work on youth civic engagement posits that civic involvement is beneficial for all youth who engage in it. More recent work has focused on articulating and measuring civic engagement as multidimensional, comprising of both civically and politically related behaviors as well as intentions by youth. Taking a multidimensional approach (i.e., measuring civic engagement as behaviors and intentions separately), the current dissertation aimed to add to the existing literature on youth engagement by longitudinally examining engagement among identity-diverse urban youth. Relying on survey data from a large longitudinal school-based study of ethnically diverse adolescents from California who participated in high school to one year post high school (2013-2019), this dissertation explored predictors of engagement across three studies. The first paper presents a multilevel analysis of the change in engagement over the four years of high school, descriptively finding gender, race/ethnicity, and subjective social status differences among behaviors and intentions of young people. The second paper explored the longitudinal relationship between perceived racial/ethnic self- and group- mistreatment and civic behaviors over the first three years of high school. Using cross-lagged path analysis, it was found that perceiving group-based mistreatment predicted higher engagement during the subsequent year in high school, suggesting that perceiving mistreatment may be a communal predictor of civic engagement among urban, ethnically diverse youth. Finally, an exploration of a cataclysmic national event – that is, the 2016 U.S. Presidential election – was conducted in the third paper as a potential predictor of civic engagement among three age groups of youth. Results from the third study found that engagement declined for all youth, especially the oldest participants, at the second time point after the election compared to before the election. Taken together, this three- study dissertation highlights the importance of exploring personal as well as communal predictors of civic engagement through multiple indicators such as behaviors undertaken by youth along with their intentions for future civic-related actions. The findings advance our understanding of how youth are propelled to become civically involved throughout late adolescence.

Students with disabilities are more likely to be victimized compared to their peers without disabilities. However, not many studies have examined how general education teachers address bullying of students with disabilities in general education placements. This study used an explanatory mixed methods design and examined strategy use based on disability category, the relationship between strategy type and type of bullying, completeness of teacher bullying definition as a moderator between years of teaching experience and strategy frequency, and teachers’ view of social exclusion as a form of bullying. The study was completed in multiple phases: expert review, survey, and teacher interviews. The research participants included 114 general education teachers in public elementary schools. Six teachers were selected from the sample and completed individual interviews. Type of bullying was coded as indirect (relational bullying: social exclusion) and direct bullying (physical: hitting; verbal: name calling). The teachers rated the frequency use of 10 strategies for each type of bullying, which were then recoded to 3 strategy levels (school level: refer to school rules and refer to administrative team; class level: change seating arrangement, teach lessons, refer to class rules, teach communication and social skills; and individual level: refer to counselor, refer to parent, handle it, and refer to special education teacher). The completeness of teacher bullying definition was measured by coding the bullying definition the participants provided which was then converted to a percentage based on the definition found in the literature. The analyses included an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), moderation analysis, and thematic analysis. There was a significant association between strategy type and frequency of strategy use. Teachers were less likely to use individual level strategies compared to class and school level strategies. Completeness of bullying definition also moderated the relationship between years of teaching experience and strategy use. Teachers in the interviews expressed 3 themes: varying definition and reasons for bullying, lack of supports to address bullying, and social exclusion can be easily missed. Implications of this study contribute to the existing limited literature on bullying of students with disabilities and to the understanding of how general education teachers are addressing the bullying of students with disabilities.

To adequately prepare competent certified special education teachers, teacher preparation programs must incorporate early co-taught fieldwork experiences for preservice teachers to engage and acquire practical co-teaching and collaborative skill sets. As extant research has focused more on in-service teachers’ co-teaching, existing studies on preservice co-teaching are less numerous, and less is known about two preservice special education teachers co-teaching in an inclusive co-taught fieldwork and their perceptions overall. This phenomenological qualitative study focused on eight preservice special education teachers’ perceived benefits and challenges of co-teaching in a semester-long early co-taught fieldwork over time. Analysis of data sources included preservice teachers’ weekly journals and semi-structured interviews, which resulted in understanding the factors that supported co-teaching, the benefits and challenges of co-teaching, and lessons learned from co-teaching for preservice teachers.

This dissertation analyzes a single cohort in a larger two-year general education teacher preparation program to determine what the program intended for participants to learn about students with disabilities (SWDs) and Universal Design for Learning (UDL), their interpretation of that learning, and how they believe they incorporated this learning into their first year teaching. To understand this, I examined course syllabi from the teacher education program, lesson plans from participants’ student teaching experience, and interviews conducted during participants’ first year in their own classrooms. Participants included 15 of 29 cohort members in the secondary math and science teacher education program at a large urban university. Each agreed to the analysis of the lesson plans they created during their student teaching year and 10 participated in one-on-one interviews. Using qualitative methods, 18 course syllabi, 28 lesson plans, and 10 semi-structured interviews were analyzed.After completing the analysis, I found that the program spent very little time introducing participants to UDL or disability. Content analysis of course syllabi revealed mention of UDL in one course syllabus and less than 5% of readings or course materials addressed disability, based on review of available summaries and abstracts. Coding of lesson plans for UDL strategies showed emerging inclusion of strategies and techniques aligned with UDL. In the interviews, participants varied in how prepared they felt to work with SWDs, some felt they were as prepared as they could be while others stated they did not feel prepared. In a variety of ways, all participants stated that it was their responsibility to find the best ways to meet the needs of all of their students. Lesson plans reviewed in this dissertation showed the need for further study into how new teachers incorporate what they learn in their teacher education programs into their actual classrooms, especially around SWDs and UDL. Overall, this dissertation showed that the program could incorporate more learning about SWDs and UDL to better prepare general education teachers to meet the needs of all of their students.

This dissertation investigated whether math course sequence from 8th to 9th grade influenced 9th grade math motivation, defined as perceived competence in math, sense of belonging in math, importance of math, and math anxiety. Two competing hypotheses were proposed suggesting that a more accelerated math curriculum (Algebra 1 in 8th grade versus 9th grade), would either protect student motivation or lessen it. The second overarching goal of this dissertation was to examine the independent and interacting role of two distinct measures of ethnic context on math motivation: (1) the perceived number of same ethnic peers in math; and (2) the incongruence between the perceived number of same ethnic peers in math class versus school. It was anticipated that students would report higher sense of belonging when they perceived more same ethnic peers in math class and when they perceived more same ethnic peers in math compared to the school. Data from this dissertation came from a larger longitudinal study of ethnically diverse youth (n = 4,385) who were recruited from 26 middle schools starting in the 6th grade and then followed into the 152 high schools to which they transitioned.

Results showed that students who took Algebra for the first time in the 9th grade showed lower math motivation compared to students who took Algebra in 8th grade and transitioned to a higher level math course. Additionally, perceiving more same ethnic peers in math class (and in math class relative to the school) was related to greater sense of belonging in math. The role that perceived number of same ethnic peers played on math motivation also depended on students’ ethnic background and the type of math course sequence they were in. For most ethnic groups (e.g., White, Black, and Latino students), perceiving more same ethnic peers in math class buffered math motivation in a more advanced math course sequence; alternatively, for other ethnic groups (e.g., Asian students), more perceived same ethnic peers was more important in a lower level math sequence. Policy implications regarding both the consequences of math course intensification and ethnic segregation in schools were discussed.