Driven by the ever-growing energy demand worldwide, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) continue to be a competitive solution for energy storage systems, ranging from personal electronics to electric vehicles (EVs) and stationary energy storage systems. However, safety continues to be an aspect of high concern and interest for their continued employment and for achieving higher levels of penetration and utilization in the consumer electric market.The main objectives of this dissertation are focus on the development of: 1) gel polymer electrolytes (GPEs) that can alleviate safety concerns borne from the use of liquid electrolytes, and 2) batteries composed of a titanium-based anode material to enable the assembly of full-cell batteries in open-air conditions. Chapter 1 introduces the background of LIBs, specifically, working principles and their compositions (cathode, anode, separator and electrolyte(s)). Chapter 2 discusses the experimental methods and fundamental theory used throughout this dissertation. Chapter 3, focuses on the design of a full coin-cell and the selection of components. Specifically, a titanium-based anode material (Li4Ti5O12, LTO), a lithium transition metal oxide cathode (LiFePO4, LFP), a liquid electrolyte (0.6 m LiBOB), and a gel polymer electrolyte (PEGDA-PC-LiTFSI) are selected based on moisture-resistance and stability in the air criteria needed for the assembly in open-air conditions. Chapter 4 investigates the use of modified GPEs to improve battery characteristics by utilizing additional polymer hosts or lithium salt additives to: 1) strengthen mechanical properties, and 2) to improve the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI). From the study and analysis of charging and discharging profiles, it is concluded that the harder robustness of GPEs with less plasticizer shows more stable cyclic performance. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) imaging taken after cycling testing shows that the cathode electrode is blocked by poor SEI films formed between cathode and electrolyte. Confirmed by SEM characterization, the addition of LiBOB salt improves the quality of SEI films and results in better cycling stability. In addition to the physical and electrochemical characterization, Chapter 3 and Chapter 4, present and discuss the results from flammability tests during electrolyte development. Lastly, the conclusion and remarks are summarized in Chapter 5.

Photovoltaic (PV) energy represents one of the most importantly clean and cheap energy sources. However, the intermittent behavior of the generated power from PV systems imposes challenges in its design and operation. Due to the internal nature of renewable energy and battery technology development in recent years, it has become more feasible and popular to build a local PV-battery microgrid that is able to supply the required energy in a cost-effective and emission-reducing manner. In this dissertation, we aim at utilizing Zinc Bromine Flow Battery (ZBFB) as an energy storage system to implement and demonstrate serval practical application scenarios of microgrids. Through analysis, optimal design, and modeling to check the performance and do field demonstration with real practical utilization. The main motivation of this work is to evaluate performance and do field demonstration in practical utilization through the specific application, techno-economic analysis, optimal design of microgrid, and unique operating model. Chapter 1 introduces the state of art background of renewable energy, flow battery technology, and microgrid requirement. In Chapter 2, one specific application minimum import violation will be introduced. The Victor Valley Wastewater Reclamation Authority (VVWRA) facility is utilized as a demonstration and project site, where a ZBFB system combined with two biogas Combined Heating Power (CHP) generators are controlled to prevent minimum import violations [1], minimize the operational power buffer, and maximize the amount of on-site renewable generation. In Chapter 3, in maximizing-revenue microgrid application, we investigated techno-economic analysis of ZBFB and Li-ion battery technology. We analyzed and quantified the performance and emission impacts of different types of battery technologies on commercial electricity consumption. In Chapter 4, we developed a bi-level optimal model which is proposed to get the optimal design of microgrid system and optimal control algorithm with considering economic benefits and emission reduction. In Chapter 5, Based on the proposed support functions of the ZBFB, this project will analyze historical data including facility load profiles, renewable energy generation (PV), and grid import power. The control algorithms for the Energy Management System (EMS) will be optimized by taking into account the specific physical and operational features as well as constraints of the ZBFB system. Furthermore, ZBFB actual (real) operational data will be utilized to develop model and perform simulations to deepen the understanding of this type of battery, its performance, and benefits achieved through the proposed applications.

Fossil fuels have been used as the primary source of energy to meet the growing demand for electric energy consumption worldwide. The use of fossil fuels results in carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions, contributing to the acceleration of global warming and climate change. Therefore, more energy should be produced from renewable energy resources to lessen energy reliance on fossil fuels. In particular, solar energy is regarded as the most promising renewable energy resource alternative to fossil fuels because it is not only unlimited but also pollution-free. However, solar energy is highly dependent on weather and environmental conditions. The intermittency of solar photovoltaic (PV) systems can be alleviated by the use of batteries. In addition, the capacity limitations of batteries can also be overcome with the integration of PV systems. The traditional PV-plus-battery system has significant energy losses due to the connections between individual components, affecting the efficiency of overall system. The direct integration of PV-battery system has the potential to minimize the energy losses and increase overall system efficiency.The main objectives of this dissertation are focused on 1) developing the understanding of the theoretical aspects of a photo-rechargeable battery system combining solar cells with batteries into a single device architecture, 2) investigating the properties of graphene quantum dots (GQDs) for their application in photo-rechargeable batteries, and 3) studying the roles of GQDs and ruthenium-based dye (N719) as photosensitizers in a photo-rechargeable battery. Chapter 2 focuses on understanding the structure and operation mechanism of the photo-rechargeable battery, consisting of a TiO2 photoanode, a LiFePO4 cathode, and LiTFSI in PC electrolyte. The performance and stability tests of photo-rechargeable battery is examined by electrochemical measurements. Chapter 3 describes the synthesis of GQDs that exhibit a variety of excellent properties including high carrier transport mobility, large surface area, and tunable bandgaps. Oxidized GQDs are selectively synthesized by the electrochemical exfoliation method and a toluene post-treatment. The chemical, structural, and optical properties of synthesized GQDs are studied for their use in the photo-rechargeable battery. Chapter 4 discusses the effect of GQDs in the performance of the photo-rechargeable battery. The performance and characteristic tests of four different photoanodes: TiO2, GQDs/TiO2, N719/TiO2, N719/GQDs/TiO2, are investigated. In conclusion, the photo-rechargeable battery with N719/GQDs/TiO2, shows significantly improved conversion efficiency and cyclic performance under illumination compared to the photo-rechargeable battery with pristine TiO2. GQDs have a crucial role in reducing the internal resistance, transferring electrons between TiO2 and N719, and absorbing more dye. The conclusions and remarks of the dissertation are summarized in Chapter 5.

The synthesis and characterization of metal-oxide photoelectrodes used for various devices that produce a renewable energy source is studied and discussed in this dissertation. Due to the various applications of nanoscale metal-oxide materials there is a variety of characterization and synthesis methods. This work controls the morphology, layer stack, and composition of metal-oxide by adjusting synthesis parameters and methods. Chapter 2 discusses the synthesis of a ZnO-CuO structure which incorporates a

ZnO nanorod core within a CuO thin film shell to use as a photocathode. A desirable diameter and length of the ZnO core is achieved by adjusting the synthesis parameters such as the ratio of oxygen to nitrogen gas, temperature, and the flow rate of gas.

Continuing onto Chapter 3, the fabrication process of dye-sensitized solar cells which utilize the synthesized ZnO-CuO core-shell as a photoelectrode is discussed. The effects on the stability and performance of the CuO shell on the ZnO core implemented in the

dye-sensitized solar cells is then investigated. The CuO shell on the ZnO core successfully prevents the dissolution of Zn atoms during the dye absorption reaction on the surface of the photoelectrode. In Chapter 4, the effects of a Cu interlayer between Cu2O

photocathode and a transparent conductive film is studied for the use in the photoelectrochemical water splitting reaction. The physical deposition process and chemical reaction are used to study the formation of a desirable structure within the thin

film stack. This method successfully fabricates a Cu2O layer that intentionally removes the Cu interlayer or prevents the formation of a Cu interlayer with varying thickness. The intercalated Cu layer between Cu2O and transparent conductive film prevents charge

separation and accelerates its recombination during the photoelectrochemical reaction. Chapter 5 discusses the introduction of a doping method into the CuO crystal lattice structure. CuO is synthesized onto a transparent conductive film through

electrodeposition. Zn doped-CuO is synthesized by adding a Zn dopant precursor into the electrodeposition solution. The electrodeposition process is optimized by controlling the applied potential, dopant concentration, temperature, and reaction time.

In this dissertation, a practical and streamlined route for the synthesis of carbonized lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4, LFP) is developed via a solid state-based lithiation process performed under an unrestricted environment. Extensive characterization and analysis are performed to study the reaction mechanism, crystallinity of synthesized product, oxidation protection during synthesis reaction, carbonization of LFP, and synthesis scale-up.

The main motivation of this work is to achieve good quality carbonized LFP product, by minimizing the oxidation of LFP during synthesis, while combining the synthesis and carbonization of LFP into a single step process. Chapter 1 introduces the background of Li-ion battery, commercialized cathode materials, and the approaches developed for LFP synthesis. In Chapter 2, well-crystallized LFP is synthesized via a solid state-based lithiation process using lithium acetate (C2H3LiO2) and iron phosphate (FePO4) as starting materials. Two key findings are identified for achieving good crystalline LFP in an unrestricted environment synthesis: 1) using quartz FePO4 (rather than amorphous FePO4) thermodynamically activates and accelerates the LFP synthesis reaction; and, 2) C2H3LiO2 in liquid state accelerates the lithiation process by increasing the uniformity of mixing and contact surface area between particles during lithiation. Compared to conventional solid state synthesis, the required synthesis time is significantly reduced from several hours down to 30 minutes. In Chapter 3, a carbon source (i.e. gelatin) is added as a sacrificial material to help inhibit the oxidation of LFP by 1) reacting and consuming part of the oxygen in the environment; and, 2) acting as a reducing agent for oxidized LFP. The thermal decomposition process of the carbon source, starting at the low temperature range, is investigated to understand its critical role in inhibiting LFP oxidation during reaction. Highly crystalline LFP is successfully synthesized by oxidation protection. In Chapter 4, an auto pressure release method for scaling-up and streamlined synthesis process is developed to auto-release the increased inner pressure caused by the gaseous byproducts during LFP synthesis. To further improve the quality of LFP, water is used as a sacrificial material to deoxygenate the reaction system and protect LFP from oxidation. The step-by-step development of a streamlined synthesis process for carbonized LFP with good quality is successfully achieved. In Chapter 5, the developmental evolution of this approach and the resolved issues through this dissertation are summarized and discussed.

Renewable energy has been playing an increasingly important role worldwide recently. For 2012 and 2013, renewables contributed 19% to energy consumption and 22% to electricity generation. In 2014, solar energy represented 36% of new generating capacity in the U.S., second only to natural gas. Due to the intermittent nature of renewable sources, energy storage systems have been integrated into the architecture of Microgrid systems to make them more efficient and robust. Within a Microgrid system, the battery energy storage system (BESS) can be used to reduce the electricity cost by delivering energy during the On-Peak rate period and storing energy (i.e. charging) during the Off-Peak rate period. This thesis proposes a real-time battery control method to reduce the electrical bill in an energy intensive environment, and more effectively utilize a BESS within Microgrid testbed system at the College of Engineering Center for Environmental Research and Technology (CE-CERT). The monthly electrical bill is based on the rate schedule time-of-use (TOU) for Large General and Industrial Service in the city of Riverside. Each month, this rate schedule has both demand charge (kW) and energy consumption (kWh) charge for three different rate periods: On-Peak, Mid-Peak, and Off-Peak. The real-time control method considers both rates for different rate periods separately. The main parts of the control method are the control algorithms, which comprise two model predictive control (MPC) algorithms, for the On-Peak rate period. The first algorithm is called the constant threshold MPC (CT-MPC) algorithm, and it is implemented in the system with the relatively stable solar generation and building load profiles in the winter season. This control algorithm can maintain the On-Peak demand below the constant threshold during the entire On-Peak rate period. The second one is called the adjusting demand threshold MPC (ADT-MPC) algorithm. The ADT-MPC algorithm fits a system with unpredictable solar generation and building load profiles. During the On-Peak rate period, by applying the ADT-MPC algorithm, the On-Peak threshold can be adjusted to optimized values. Both algorithms can maintain a low level of energy import from the external grid (i.e. Riverside Public Utilities grid) during the On-Peak rate period. For the other two rate periods, the Off-Peak and Mid-Peak control algorithms are also developed. With the real-time battery control method, the BESS continuously maintains the lowest demand and energy consumption for the entire day.

The synthesis of novel nanomaterials systems and one-dimensioal nanostructures have created a great deal of excitement in the area of nanoelectronics and biomedical applications. The research presented in this dissertation is an effort to contribute to the realization of applications in both of the forementioned fronts of Nanotechnology.

In the first approach, a mutant icosahedral Cow Pea Mosaic Virus (CPMV) is employed as an scaffold to covalently attached two different types of inorganic nanomaterials; namely, ZnS(shell)/CdSe(core) semiconductor quantum dots and iron oxide (&gamma-Fe2O3) nanoparticles.

In the CPMV-QD(1,2) system a bistability behavior is observed and conductive atomic force microscopy (CAFM) is extensively used to characterize and implement a hybrid memory element at the nanoscale.

In the CPMV-&gamma-Fe2O3 system the conjugation of iron oxide (IO) nanoclusters is extensively characterized by magnetic force microscopy (MFM) and an increase in the local magnetic field strength opens up the potential use of this system in bioimaging applications.

On the second approach, crystalline nanowires (NWs) of semiconducting compound materials Copper Indium Disulfide (CuInS₂) and Indium Antimonide (InSb) are synthesized using a sono-electrochemical deposition process. Using sonoelectrochemistry overcomes many of the challenges related to the crystal quality that are inherent to regular electrochemistry and allows a greater control in the engineering of the electronic and optoelectrical properties of the as-synthesized NW

On one hand, CuInS₂ is a promising materials as an absorbent material for solar cell applications. During the synthesis process the effect of the partial precursor electrolyte ratios on the optoelectrical properties of the as-synthesized NWs is extensively study. As-synthesized I-rich NWs are found to be photoconductive while C-rich NWs are not.

On the other hand, InSb is an attractive material to develop high speed and low power logical applications. During the synthesis process, the depositon potential was selectively controlled as a way to modify the composition and stoichiometric ratio of the as-synthesized NWs. The transport characteristics of as-synthesized NWs were modified between n and p-type semiconducting behavior.

LPCVD synthesis and characterization of ZnO with diverse morphology for semiconducting applications are studied and discussed in this dissertation. Because nanoscale ZnO shows variant characteristics depending on its physical dimensions, morphology, and impurity concentration, the focus of this work is to control the structure and composition of ZnO by adjusting synthesis parameters and methods. In Chapter 2, the synthesis of ZnO with optimized concentration of oxygen vacancies and physical dimensions are discussed. Opaqueness of ZnO is derived from scattering due to its physical dimensions, but visible transparency for the photocatalytic application of ZnO for solar cell devices is required. By controlling the concentration of oxygen vacancies and physical dimensions, fluorescent and transparent ZnO is successfully synthesized. In Chapter 3, a method to stabilize precursor supply and to lower the reaction temperature is discussed. In CVD synthesis, the stable and continuous growth of ZnO is inhibited by the premature oxidation of Zn, and the formation of a zinc oxide layer that blocks the evaporation of Zn precursor. By controlling the fluid dynamics of precursor vapors, a low temperature synthesis method with higher product uniformity is developed. Using this method, a stable synthesis technique for producing high quality ZnO under low temperature is successfully achieved. In Chapter 4, the synthesis of ZnO under relatively low temperature is discussed. During LPCVD synthesis it is observed that as the distance from the source increases, the partial vapor pressure of Zn near the surface of the deposition substrate is drastically decreased (along the axis of gas flow), forming a dimensional gradient on a single substrate. The changing reactant ratio near the surface drives the non-uniformity of product in terms of morphology, physical dimensions, and impurity concentration. In Chapter 5, a novel template-free self-catalyzed synthesis technique for achieving ultra-thin ZnO nanowires is discussed. From the tip of synthesized hexagonal cone ZnO, ultra-thin ZnO nanowires are grown by self-catalysis.

Due to the finite nature and detrimental environmental impacts of conventional fossil-fuel energy resources, renewable energy resources are promising clean and sustainable forms of energy for meeting society’s future energy needs. As renewable energy continues to gain higher penetration in the electric power grid through distributed generation, microgrids represent an innovative approach towards achieving a distributed grid architecture, playing a critical role in implementing future smart grid systems. This dissertation first introduces a novel online prediction algorithm with the forgetting factor: Affine Extreme Learning Machine with Forgetting Learning (FL-AELM). The proposed FL-AELM is applied to forecast solar generation and EV charging power. Due to training data's non-availability and seasonality features, the FL-AELM is actively trained by the new training and outdated data. Compared to other state-of-art prediction models, the proposed FL-AELM increases the prediction accuracy by over 8% and 13% for solar generation and EV charging power, respectively. Additionally, this dissertation introduces the unique EV characteristic from the charging current time series: tail feature. Tail is a subsequence of the charging time series consisting of consistently nonincreasing current in the constant voltage stage. A novel shape-wise distance – refine matrix profile similarity (RMPS) is proposed to measure the global similarity of two tails by comparing each subsequence of the two time series. By tunning the subsequence length and cluster numbers, diverse charging profiles can be classified into seven groups with unique tail templates. Combining the learned tail templates into the centralized and distributed EV smart charging optimization, an average of 4% - 5% flexible rate or 0.7% satisfactory rate improvement can be achieved. This dissertation further introduces two real-world microgrid applications equipped with solar generation and battery energy storage systems (BESS). Different predictive model-based energy management systems for the microgrids are developed and implemented to handle demand response, load shifting, and net load reduction (i.e. peak shaving). With the utilization of BESS, the microgrid systems can reduce the electricity cost reduction and peak demand. It is clear that if the system transitions to the updated time-of-use periods, the energy storage system can significantly contribute to more cost savings and take a more critical role in reducing the total electric bill than the legacy time-of-use periods.