Experiments in Linguistic Meaning

We investigate the semantics of the causal verbs cause, make, and force as used in the construction X {caused/made/forced} Y (to) Z. The predominant approach to analyzing verbs of causing has been to argue that they convey some version of SUFFICIENCY, but it has also been suggested that INTENTION or possible ALTERNATIVES may also factor into the semantics of the verbs. Using sequences of tic-tac-toe states as experimental stimuli, we measure the three possible contributing factors in each stimuli and ask participants whether each verb is appropriate for describing the sequence. We find experimental support for a differentiating semantics of these verbs, in which no single predictor is the sole factor in when each verb is appropriate.