California Health Professional Student Alliance (CaHPSA)

This review examines the enduring sex and gender disparities within biomedical research, clinical care, and health policy that impact how medical conditions are studied, diagnosed, and treated in women. Across the literature, the underrepresentation of women in clinical studies has fostered a limited understanding of sex-specific disease mechanisms and differences in treatment responses, while gaps in gynecological care have contributed to delayed diagnoses and reduced access to preventive services. These challenges are particularly apparent in conditions such as cardiovascular disease, endometriosis, breast cancer, and Alzheimer’s disease, where differences in disease risk and progression remain insufficiently understood. Furthermore, research indicates that these experiences vary significantly across racial and ethnic groups, revealing that the aggregation of diverse populations potentially obscures critical subgroup disparities. Ultimately, this paper explores how biological, clinical, and social factors intersect to shape women’s health and advocates for representative, equitable healthcare practices that recognize sex-informed clinical considerations and structural health barriers.