Private aerial hunting of predators for protection of livestock began before 1925 in the western United States. Apparently, it was first used in professional control programs in 1942. Inclement weather, dense vegetation, and rough terrain are limiting factors and helicopters are more versatile than fixed-wing aircraft. When it can be employed, aerial hunting is unsurpassed as an immediate control method where livestock losses are severe and the need for control is urgent.

The development of exclusion fencing has been extensive in Australia in attempts to reduce losses of crops and livestock to rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), dingos (Canis familiaris var. dingo) and other species. Restrictions on other damage control methods have led to increased efforts in the United States to utilize such fences for protection of crops and livestock from dogs (Canis familiaris), coyotes (Canis latrans) and other species. Electric fences have occasionally been used to protect apiaries from black bears (Ursus americanus) and to protect some wildlife species from carnivores. Varied fence types include conventional netwire or combinations of net and barbed wire, high-voltage electric wires, and conventional fences modified by addition of electric wires. Fences appear to be most useful and cost-effective on small open pastures with intensive production and appear to be least successful on large pastures with low production and high vegetative cover, which restricts removal of predators. Fences may be helpful in directing predator travel to areas where other control methods can be applied. Limitations on the use of exclusion fences include construction costs and the inability to exclude some predators or to remove them from fenced areas. Regulations related to protection of wild species such as pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra americana) may prohibit construction of effective exclusion fences, particularly on public lands. Difficulties and costs of fence maintenance are related to terrain, soil types, dense vegetation, fence damage by livestock and other animals, heavy snows, floodwaters and other causes. Predators gain access through damaged fences, malfunctioning electric fences, or by jumping over or digging under. Data indicate that where predators tend to be contained within such enclosures, fences may serve to increase losses to predation rather than to reduce them.

This discussion is an update from Wade (1980) which summarized executive and other decisions relating to cancellation of the predacides in 1972. This review continues that summary of major events from January 1980 to the present. Major political factors, predator damage control, and research findings during this period are briefly discussed. A chronology of administrative and judicial decisions and related events is appended (Appendix A).

This review summarizes executive and other actions relating to cancellation of the predacides in 1972 and related events. A chronology of these actions and events is appended (Appendix A). Predator damage control operations. and research findings over the past decade, are briefly reviewed and related political decisions are discussed.