UCLA Civil and Environmental Engineering

A complete model of a soil-foundation-structure system for use in response history analysis requires modification of input motions relative to those in the free-field to account for kinematic interaction effects, foundation springs and dashpots to represent foundation-soil impedance, and a structural model. The recently completed ATC-83 project developed consistent guidelines for evaluation of kinematic interaction effects and foundation impedance for realistic conditions. We implement those procedures in seismic response history analyses for two instrumented buildings in California, one a 13-story concrete-moment frame building with two levels of basement and the other a 10-story concrete shear wall core building without embedment. We develop three-dimensional baseline models (MB) of the building and foundation systems (including SSI components) that are calibrated to reproduce observed responses from recorded earthquakes. SSI components considered in the MB model include horizontal and vertical springs and dashpots that represent the horizontal translation and rotational impedance, kinematic ground motion variations from embedment and base slab averaging, and ground motion variations over the embedment depth of basements. We then remove selected components of the MB models one at a time to evaluate their impact on engineering demand parameters (EDPs) such as inter-story drifts, story shear distributions, and floor accelerations. We find that a “bathtub” model that retains all features of the MB approach except for depth-variable motions provides for generally good above-ground superstructure responses, but biased demand assessments in subterranean levels. Other common approaches using a fixed-based representation can produce poor results.

Site factors are used to modify ground motions from a reference rock site condition to reflect the influence of geologic conditions at the site of interest. Site factors typically have a small-strain (linear) site amplification that captures impedance and resonance effects coupled with nonlinear components. Site factors in current NEHRP Provisions are empirically-derived at relatively small ground motion levels and feature simulation-based nonlinearity. We show that NEHRP factors have discrepancies with respect to the site terms in the Next Generation Attenuation (NGA) ground motion prediction equations, both in the linear site amplification (especially for Classes B, C, D, and E) and the degree of nonlinearity (Classes C and D). The misfits are towards larger linear site factors and stronger nonlinearity in theNEHRP factors. The differences in linear site factors result largely from theirnormalization to a reference average shear wave velocity in the upper 30 m of about 1050 m/s, whereas the reference velocity for current application is 760 m/s. We show that the levels of nonlinearity in the NEHRP factors are generally stronger than recent simulation-based models as well as empirically-based models.

We review site parameters used in ground motion prediction equations (GMPEs) for various tectonic regimes and describe procedures for estimation of site parameters in the absence of site-specific data. Most modern GMPEs take as the principal site parameter the average shear wave velocity in the upper 30 m of the site (V_s30) either directly or as the basis for site classification into categories. Three GMPEs developed for active regions also use basin depth parameters. We review estimation procedures for V_s30 that utilize surface geology, terrain-based site categories, ground slope, or combinations of these. We analyze the relative efficacy of those procedures using a profile data set from California assembled in a recent NGA project. The results indicate that no single procedure is most effective and that prediction dispersion is lower for young sediments than for stiff soils or rock.

          The Salton Sea is the largest lake in California and is an endorheic, shallow, hypersaline lake. The surface water elevation of the Sea is currently 238 feet below sea level, and has been maintained by agricultural return flows from Imperial Valley farming, and two rivers- the New River and Alamo River- which originate in Mexicali, Mexico. The current salinity is at 74 ppt and is expected to increase due to the Quantification Settlement Agreement that was signed in 2003, stipulating the transfer of 500,000 acre-ft of Colorado River water to urban areas until 2075. This results in less flow to the Salton Sea and the declining water level has exposed 220 square miles of dried up playa, creating dust storms that have become the highest risk factor for asthma and cardiovascular diseases to the population around the Sea. Massive fish and bird kills began in the 1980s and continue to occur periodically. The Sea that was once the main Pacific flyway is now named as “IBA in Danger” by BirdLife International.

            In this study, the Delft3D numerical modeling suite- FLOW, WAVE and WAQ- was utilized to investigate transport and cycling of nutrients under the influence of wind-induced sediment resuspension activity. The three-dimensional hydrodynamic and water quality combined model was applied to simulate mitigation scenarios to assess long-term effects on salinity and water quality of 1) emerged islands, 2) seawater import/export, and 3) seawater import/export in addition to treating tributary rivers to remove nutrients treatment.

              Overall, this study supports the findings from previous studies and showed that sediment resuspension is an important factor that influences orthophosphate concentration in the water column, and that emerged islands have long term potential on enhancing burial activity for pollutants removal in the Salton Sea. Furthermore, the seawater import/export mitigation scenario showed promising results of reducing salinity level from 46 ppt to 38-39 ppt in two years. The three-dimensional hydrodynamic/water quality model developed in this work is the latest numerical model tailored to the Salton Sea’s system, and has the potential to improve understanding of biogeochemical processes of chemical substances that lead to detrimental effects, and facilitate future restoration plans for the Salton Sea. 

When the direct shear test is performed in accordance with ASTM guidelines, the measured shear stresses at failure estimate drained strength parameters.  We investigate the possibility of estimating undrained strength using direct shear testing at variable shear displacement rates on specimens composed of various combinations of kaolinite and bentonite. Even at fast displacement rates, constant volume conditions are not achieved in the direct shear device because of changes in specimen height that are large relative to allowable ASTM thresholds for constant volume simple shear testing. However, undrained strengths established by constant volume simple shear testing at slow strain rates are well approximated by direct shear tests conducted at fast shear displacement rates (time to failure < t₅₀/8, where t₅₀=time to 50% consolidation in a conventional oedometer test). Because of the simplicity of direct shear testing, such estimates of undrained strength may be useful in engineering practice when access to a simple shear device is limited. Nevertheless, fast direct shear tests have shortcomings, including lack of control of rate effects, and constant volume testing is recommended for critical projects.

We investigate through laboratory testing the volume change characteristics of peaty organic soil from Sherman Island, California under static conditions (consolidation, secondary compression) and post-cyclic conditions. Incremental consolidation tests indicate the material to be highly compressible (C_c = 3.9, C_r = 0.4) and prone to substantial ageing from secondary compression (C_a/C_c = 0.05 following virgin compression). Strain-controlled cyclic triaxial testing of the peat finds the generation of cyclic pore pressures for cyclic shear strain levels beyond approximately 0.5-1.0%, with the largest residual pore pressure ratios r_ur (cyclic residual pore pressure normalized by pre-cyclic consolidation stress) being approximately 0.2-0.4. Post cyclic volume change occurs from pore pressure dissipation and secondary compression. The level of post-cyclic secondary compression increases with r_ur. Many of these phenomena have not been documented previously and suggest the potential for seismic freeboard loss in levees due to mechanisms other than shear failure.

This research involved analysis and field testing of numerous foundation support components for highway bridges. Two classes of components were tested - cast-in-drilled-hole (CIDH) reinforced concrete piles (drilled shafts) and an abutment backwall. The emphasis of this document (Part II of the full report) is abutment backwall elements.

The backwall test specimen was backfilled to a height of 5.5 up from the base of the wall with well-compacted silty sand backfill material (SE 30). The wall is displaced perpendicular to its longitudinal axis. Wing walls are constructed with low-friction interfaces to simulate 2D conditions. The backfill extends below the base of the wall to ensure that the failure surface occurs entirely within the sand backfill soil, which was confirmed following testing. The specimen was constructed and tested under boundary conditions in which the wall was displaced laterally into the backfill and not allowed to displace vertically.

A maximum passive capacity of 497 kips was attained at a wall displacement of about 2.0 in, which corresponds to a passive earth pressure coefficient Kp of 16.3. Strain softening occurs following the peak resistance, and a residual resistance of approximately 460 kips is achieved for displacements > 3.0 inch. The equivalent residual passive earth pressure coefficient is Kp = 15.1 and the equivalent uniform passive pressure at residual is approximately 5.1 ksf, which nearly matches the value in the 2004 Seismic Design Criteria of 5.0 ksf. The average abutment stiffness K50 was defined as a secant stiffness through the origin and the point of 50% of the ultimate passive force. For an abutment wall with a backfill height H of 5.5 ft, this stiffness was found to be K50 = 50 kip/in per foot of wall. The load-deflection behavior of the wall-backfill system is reasonably well described by a hyperbolic curve.

The passive pressure resultant is under predicted using classical Rankine or Coulomb earth pressure theories. Good estimates of capacity are obtained using the log-spiral formulation and the method-of-slices. The method-of-slices approach is implemented with a log-spiral hyperbolic method of evaluating backbone curves that provides a good match to the data.

A complete model of a soil-foundation-structure system for use in response history analysis requires modification of input motions relative to those in the free-field to account for kinematic interaction effects, foundation springs and dashpots to represent foundation-soil impedance, and a structural model. The recently completed ATC-83 project developed consistent guidelines for evaluation of kinematic interaction effects and foundation impedance for realistic conditions. We implement those procedures in seismic response history analyses for two instrumented buildings in California, one a 13-story concrete-moment frame building with two levels of basement and the other a 10-story concrete shear wall core building without embedment. We develop three-dimensional baseline models (MB) of the building and foundation systems (including SSI components) that are calibrated to reproduce observed responses from recorded earthquakes. SSI components considered in the MB model include horizontal and vertical springs and dashpots that represent the horizontal translation and rotational impedance, kinematic ground motion variations from embedment and base slab averaging, and ground motion variations over the embedment depth of basements. We then remove selected components of the MB models one at a time to evaluate their impact on engineering demand parameters (EDPs) such as inter-story drifts, story shear distributions, and floor accelerations. We find that a “bathtub” model that retains all features of the MB approach except for depth-variable motions provides for generally good above-ground superstructure responses, but biased demand assessments in subterranean levels. Other common approaches using a fixed-based representation can produce poor results.

The present work details the development of carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy membranes with excellent rejection of small-molecule dyes. It is a proof-of-concept for a more sustainable membrane design incorporating carbon fibers, and their recycling and reuse. 4,4-methylenebis(cyclohexylamine) (MBCHA) polymerized with either bisphenol-A-diglycidyl ether (BADGE) or tetraphenolethane tetraglycidylether (EPON Resin 1031) in polyethylene glycol (PEG) were used to make monolithic membranes reinforced by nonwoven carbon fibers. Membrane pore sizes were tuned by adjusting the molecular weight of the PEG used in the initial polymerization. Membranes made of BADGE-MBCHA showed rejection of Rose Bengal approaching 100%, while tuning the pore sizes substantially increased the rejection of Methylene Blue from ~65% to nearly 100%. The membrane with the best permselectivity was made of EPON-MBCHA polymerized in PEG 300. It has an average DI flux of 4.48 LMH/bar and an average rejection of 99.6% and 99.8% for Rose Bengal and Methylene Blue dyes, respectively. Degradation in 1.1 M sodium hypochlorite enabled the retrieval of the carbon fiber from the epoxy matrix, suggesting that the monolithic membranes could be recycled to retrieve high-value products rather than downcycled for incineration or used as a lower selectivity membrane. The mechanism for epoxy degradation is hypothesized to be part chemical and part physical due to intense swelling stress leading to erosion that leaves behind undamaged carbon fibers. The retrieved fibers were successfully used to make another membrane exhibiting similar performance to those made with pristine fibers.

We describe the data model that we intend to use in a publicly available site profile database under development for the United States. The initial implementation of the database contains data from California. Currently, our prototype data model consists of JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) format files for storing metadata and data. For a site to be included in the database, the minimum metadata requirements are geodetic coordinates and elevation values, and the minimum data requirement is a shear-wave velocity profile. The JSON files are structured in a hierarchal manner to store metadata and data using a nested structure consisting of location, velocity profiles, dispersion curve data (for surface-wave methods), geotechnical data, and horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratios. The database schema at the current stage of the project, and as we continue to develop the data model we will consider including other relevant data, as well as evaluate other file formats to increase the efficiency of data storage and querying. In the current data model, location information includes site geodetic values (latitude, longitude, and elevation) and various site descriptors related to surface geology, geomorphic terrain category, slope gradient at various resolutions, and a geotechnical site category. Velocity data include the geophysical method(s) used to obtain the shear-wave velocity profile, type of data recorded, modeled primary- and shear-wave velocity as a function of depth, modeled profile maximum depth, and the calculated VS30 value. In the case of surface-wave based data, dispersion curve data can be recorded in data structure as phase velocity versus either wavelength or frequency. Geotechnical data includes boring logs penetration resistance, cone penetration test sounding logs, and laboratory index test results. Horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio plots are given as a function of frequency.