UC Santa Barbara

My dissertation focuses on weaponry in the Achaemenid Persian Empire (ca. 550-330 BC), with an emphasis on bows and spears. Scholars have long recognized the importance of archery in the ancient Near East generally, and the Achaemenid Empire more specifically, but no thorough study of archery has been undertaken.

In the opening chapters, I examine weapons as physical objects. Chapter one describes the shape and size of the Elamite and Scythian style bows which the Persians used. I also consider other aspects of archery tackle, in particular arrows. Arrowheads are often the only evidence for arrows that remain, and their shape, size, and weight can reveal their purpose, the type of bow from which they were fired, and the potential range they could travel.

Chapter two discusses the physical properties of Achaemenid spears. Evidence suggests that Persians used both throwing and thrusting spears. The Persians may have used a single versatile type of spear, called in Greek a palton, that could be used either way, and is often associated with Persian cavalry. Evidence suggests the Persians used a fairly long spear, perhaps seven feet, which contradicts Herodotus’ description of short spears. Chapter three focuses on the logistics of military archery, and to a lesser extent spearmanship, in an Achaemenid context. The study of archery is especially relevant to this topic due to the increased logistical needs involved in the manufacture of composite bows, and the constant need to supply arrows to soldiers while on campaign. I also examine the recruitment, training, and armament of spearmen in this section. Documentary evidence describes that the state distributed arable land in exchange for military service. This practice was carried over from the earlier empires that ruled in this region. Another source of recruitment attested in Mesopotamia, but perhaps used elsewhere, were the temples. Temple dependants worked these lands for the temple, but were also liable for military service. Temples also employed weapon manufacturing specialists, including bowyers and blacksmiths, who produced the weapons that armed the conscripted soldiers.

In chapter four, I examine the gerrhon, a rectangular shield which the Persians are said to have used at the battle of Plataea and Mycale. The Greek term for these shields, gerrhon, can be translated as “wicker.” Many modern historians have taken this translation literally, and suggest that a wicker shield could not have been an effective form of defense. I challenge this hypothesis, and built shields using the same techniques as the Persians, and with materials that have similar properties to those available to the ancient Achaemenids. Finally, I consider how these shields were used on the battlefield, whether they formed a solid defensive wall or were arranged in an open pattern, and how many archers could have been protected by each shield.

In the final chapter, I move away from bows and spears as weapons to discuss their symbolic value within the Achaemenid Empire. Both weapons appear as symbols of royal power on Achaemenid reliefs, coins, and seals, and in inscriptions. The bow is also used as an ethical symbol in many cultures, and may have been particularly suitable as a symbol of Persian morality. Bows produce power through the tension of opposing forces, the limbs. This source of power may have resonated with the Achaemenids, as their cosmology was based on opposition. Finally, I consider the possibility that the Achaemenids used weapons in rituals. There is no direct evidence for this practice, but some passages in Greek literature could reflect a misunderstanding of actual Achaemenid ritual practice.