This dissertation is a social history of the urban community of lay Buddhist elites, known as "householders," that vigorously pursued a mission of Buddhist activism in Shanghai during the first half of the twentieth century. The Shanghai householders were capitalists, doctors, lawyers, intellectuals and party members who chose to make a formal commitment to Buddhism and its goals of salvation yet retained their status as regular members of society with families and careers. They comprised the largest and most influential of the elite lay Buddhist communities that sprang up in cities across China during the Republican era. This study analyzes the social significance of the Shanghai householder community as it transitioned through a series of social and political upheavals from its emergence in the 1920s to its eventual demise amidst the transition to socialism in 1956. I argue that throughout these years Buddhist activism constituted an arena of civic culture in which urban elites were able to establish a durable source of moral authority and social legitimacy.

The goals of the National Institute on Drug Abuse Clinical Trials Network (CTN) are to test promising drug abuse treatment models in multisite clinical trials and to support the adoption of new interventions into clinical practice. Using qualitative research methods, we studied adoption in the context of two multisite trials, one outside the CTN and another within the CTN. Seventy-one participants representing eight organizational roles ranging from clinic staff to clinical trial leaders were interviewed about their role in the clinical trial, the trial's interactions with clinics, and intervention adoption. Drawing on the conceptual themes identified in these interviews, we report on strategies that could be applied in the planning, development, and implementation of multisite studies to better support the adoption of tested interventions in study clinics after trials had ended. Planning for adoption in the early stages of protocol development will enhance the integration of new interventions into practice.

The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) Clinical Trials Network (CTN) is intended to test promising drug abuse treatment models in multisite clinical trials and to support adoption of new interventions into clinical practice. Using qualitative research methods we asked the following question: how might the technology of multisite clinical trials be modified to better support adoption of tested interventions? A total of 42 participants, representing eight organizational levels ranging from clinic staff to clinical trial leaders, were interviewed about their role in the clinical trial, its interactions with clinics, and intervention adoption. Among eight clinics participating in the clinical trial, we found adoption of the tested intervention in one clinic only. Analysis of interview data revealed four conceptual themes likely to affect adoption and may be informative in future multisite clinical trials. Planning for adoption in the early stages of protocol development will better serve the aim of integrating new interventions into practice.

This report based on the 2002 NYTS, preesnts rates of ever, current, and frequent smoking; ever smoking daily; number of cigarettes smoked; cigarette type and brand preferences; and use of menthol cigarettes. This report also shows the change in current smoking from 2000 to 2002. Tobacco use has declined since 2000 among high school students. In 2000, 28 percent of high school students in the United States were current smokers, compared with 23 percent in 2002. Among middle school students, the trend is less encouraging; smoking remained relatively stable, with rates of use at 11 percent in 2000 and 10 percent in 2002. Some of the factors believed to be associated with the decline in smoking among high school students are state and national media campaignsm such as the national truth campaign; increased cigarette prices; restrictions on tobacco advertising; and smoke-free laws and policies. It is unclear why middle school smoking rates remain unchanged

Bivalve molluscs concentrate Cryptosporidium oocysts from fecal-contaminated aquatic environments and are useful for monitoring water quality. A real-time TaqMan polymerase chain reaction (PCR) system was developed to allow for large scale quantitative detection of Cryptosporidium spp. in mussels (Mytilus californianus). The TaqMan sensitivity and specificity were compared to conventional PCR and direct immunofluorescent antibody (DFA) methodologies, with and without immunomagnetic separation (IMS), to identify the best method for parasite detection in mussel hemolymph, gill washings and digestive glands. TaqMan PCR and two conventional PCR systems all detected 1 or more oocysts spiked into 1 ml hemolymph samples. The minimum oocyst detection limit in spiked 5 ml gill wash and 1 g digestive gland samples tested by TaqMan PCR and DFA was 100 oocysts, with a log10 improvement when samples were first processed by IMS. The most sensitive method for the detection of C. parvum in tank-exposed mussels was IMS concentration with DFA detection: 80% of individual and 100% of pooled digestive gland samples tested positive.

The wild mussel study was conducted to evaluate estuarine and nearshore marine Mytilus spp. as bioindicators of fecal contamination in coastal ecosystems of California. Hemolymph samples from 4680 mussels were tested for Cryptosporidium genotypes using PCR amplification and DNA sequence analysis. Cryptosporidium genotypes detected in hemolymph samples from individual mussels included Cryptosporidium parvum, Cryptosporidium felis, Cryptosporidium andersoni, and two novel Cryptosporidium spp. Factors significantly associated with detection of Cryptosporidium spp. in mussel batches were exposure to freshwater outflow and mussel collection within a week following a precipitation event.

The freshwater clam study evaluated Corbicula spp. as bioindicators of fecal protozoan contamination using three approaches: 1) clam tissue spiking experiments to compare several detection techniques, 2) clam tank exposure experiments to evaluate clams that that had filtered Cryptosporidium oocysts from inoculated water under a range of simulated environmental conditions, and 3) sentinel clam outplanting to assess the distribution and magnitude of fecal contamination in three riverine systems in California. The spiking and tank experiments showed that DFA, IMS in combination with DFA, and PCR techniques could be used to detect Cryptosporidium in clam tissues. In the tank experiment, oocyst dose and collection time were significant predictors for detection of C. parvum oocysts in clams. In the wild clam study, Cryptosporidium and Giardia were detected in clams from all three study regions by IMS in combination with DFA analysis of clam digestive glands, with significant variation by sampling year and season. These bivalve studies have shown that clams and mussels can be used to monitor water quality in California and suggests that humans and animals ingesting fecal-contaminated water and shellfish may be exposed to both host-specific and anthropozoonotic Cryptosporidium genotypes of public health significance.