Deep surveys have allowed us to precisely chart the evolution of galaxies from billions of years ago through to the present day. We’ve found that galaxies in the distant past are dramatically different than those in the local universe: the stellar masses, sizes, structures, star formation rates, gas contents, and kinematics of galaxies all evolve with redshift. One of the few constants is the bimodality between star-forming and quiescent galaxies, which persists across a wide redshift range. Despite these observational advances, the exact nature of the physical processes governing the growth and transformation of galaxies remain unknown.

The first section of this thesis concentrates on the growth of galaxies. Previous studies have used half-light radii to trace the evolution of galaxy sizes. However, radial color gradients cause the light and mass profiles of galaxies to differ, biasing these measurements. I develop and test multiple techniques for measuring the mass profiles of galaxies from high-resolution multi-band Hubble Space Telescope imaging, then use these techniques to create the largest- ever catalog of galaxy half-mass radii at 0 ≤ z ≤ 2.5. This unique catalog enables me to correct for biases in previous studies of size evolution and discover that galaxies grow much more slowly than previously thought. I then examine how the structures of galaxies change as they age along the quiescent sequence, providing support for a merger-driven “inside-out” growth mechanism. Finally, I investigate how the structures of galaxies change as they gradually move up the star-forming sequence towards quiescence. These results pave the way for a new interpretation of the star-forming size-mass relation, and provide evidence for multiple distinct pathways for galaxies to shut down their star formation.

The second section of this thesis addresses the transformation of galaxies from star-forming to quiescent. Because stars form out of cold molecular gas, most theoretical mechanisms for this “quenching” process rely on heating, depleting, or removing molecular gas reservoirs. Post-starburst galaxies, whose spectra indicate that they have recently and rapidly shut down a major burst of star formation, are the ideal laboratory to test these theoretical quenching mechanisms. I introduce the SQuIGGLE multi-wavelength survey of intermediate-redshift post-starburst galaxies. After selecting ∼1,300 of these rare recently-quenched galaxies by their Sloan Digital Sky Survey spectroscopy, I perform detailed Bayesian spectral modeling to constrain their star formation histories. I also present Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array measurements of the CO(2–1) line in two SQuIGGLE galaxies. I show that, in contrast to theoretical predictions, these recently-quenched galaxies can retain large molecular gas reservoirs. These puzzling observations challenge our understanding of how galaxies shut down their star formation.

This paper compares the cost per acre-foot to the East Bay Municipal Utility District (EBMUD) of conservation versus an increase in size of Pardee Reservoir. The paper analyzes two components of the EBMUD’s 2009 Water Plan for meeting demands in 2040: promoting more rigorous conservation methods for its customers, and increasing the size of Pardee Reservoir by the construction of a new dam ¾ mile downstream from the existing location. Additionally, the paper analyzes five documents published by EMBUD over the last 12 years, for discussion of reservoir expansion, conservation targets, and climate change.

The technology used to observe solar system planets continues to advance, increasing the spatial resolution, time cadence, and spectral coverage of observations and permitting the discovery of new phenomena in the atmospheres of worlds near and far. Comparative planetology is a powerful framework to help characterize and explain these newly-discovered phenomena: the similarities and differences between the composition, structure, and dynamics of planetary atmospheres test the robustness of the theories we use to understand and predict the weather and climate of atmospheres. This dissertation uses a comparative planetology framework to understand the physical processes underlying new observations of the atmospheres of Uranus and Neptune and new statistical analyses of observed storms on Earth. Although qualitatively dissimilar, the atmospheres of Uranus, Neptune, and Earth lie in a similar fluid-dynamical regime in many respects, allowing much of our physical intuition to translate across those three atmospheres. In particular, this dissertation focuses on using remote-sensing data to probe processes relevant to cloud formation and precipitation.

Higher bulk densities and strong enrichment in carbon and oxygen distinguish Uranus and Neptune from the gas giants Jupiter and Saturn, placing them into their own category, the ice giants. Exoplanet statistics reinforce this distinction: a gap in the size distribution of known exoplanets has been observed between the Jupiter-sized and Neptune-sized exoplanets. Uranus and Neptune are therefore of primary importance for understanding the different types of worlds that fill our galaxy; however, their distance from Earth also makes them very challenging to study in detail. The first three chapters of this dissertation tackle that observational challenge.Using near-infrared data from Keck Observatory and optical data from the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), I characterize a newly-observed storm at the equator of Neptune, including derivations of drift rates from cloud tracking and cloud-top pressures from radiative transfer modeling. I then apply the physics of deep convection and planetary waves to infer the drivers of the storm. Making use of millimeter-wavelength observations from the Atacama Large (sub)-Millimeter Array (ALMA) and mid-infrared observations from the Very Large Telescope (VLT), I observe the thermal component of the Uranian ring system for the first time. I apply the radiative transfer equation to the ring particles to derive their surface temperature and show that they rotate slowly compared to their radiative cooling time. I use the same dataset in conjunction with centimeter-wavelength Very Large Array (VLA) data to study the deep troposphere of Uranus from 1-50 bar. Applying intuition based on Earth's Hadley-Walker circulation, I link the observed enrichment and depletion of volatile species in Uranus's deep troposphere to Uranus's planetary-scale circulation.

Although the instrumentation and radiative transfer models are similar between observations of Earth and the ice giants, the technical challenges that arise in observing these bodies are somewhat opposite. Earth observations exemplify a data-rich regime in which millions of new data points are recorded every hour at spatial resolutions of order 1 kilometer, whereas ice giant studies are comparatively data-starved: $\sim$10 images at 100-kilometer resolution may constitute a full dataset. The second half of this dissertation tackles the data-rich observational challenge, concerning itself with the observed statistics of extratropical extreme storms on Earth from remote-sensing data. Using Doppler radar data, I show that the return values of extreme precipitation are strongly autocorrelated over the Eastern and Midwestern United States up to scales of $\gtrsim$100 kilometers, and that rain gauges can accurately estimate extreme precipitation only if interpolated with a particular eye toward capturing extremes. I then compile a suite of hourly data at 8-km resolution over the Eastern and Midwestern United States that simultaneously probes the synoptic-scale dynamical context of storms, the structure of clouds within storms, and the precipitation produced by storms. I demonstrate the utility of this unique data combination by examining the precipitation efficiency of storms, showing that precipitation efficiency increases with equivalent potential temperature over the contiguous United States (CONUS) in both the warm and cool seasons.

Taken as a whole, this dissertation showcases the ways in which recent advances in remote sensing technology and computational power can be applied to study atmospheres across the solar system, with a particular focus on cloud and precipitation processes.The types of questions that can be answered in the data-rich regime underscore the massive potential for advances in our understanding of the Solar System planets (and exoplanets) as data from new observatories and missions arrive in the next decades.

A Confused War

A film by Rachel Waldholz and Mariel Waloff

Synopsis:

You want to talk about the significant drop in crime? Talk to these young people. They control the flow. So if they’re the ones controlling the flow, let’s make sure they know that we care about them. The city, the community, we care about you. And the way we show you that we care about you is we’re willing to invest in you.

– Kevin Muccular, Richmond Office of Neighborhood Safety

For decades, Richmond, California has had a reputation for intractable violence. In 2007, this city of 103,000 people had 47 homicides. It was one of the highest murder rates in the country. But by 2012, that number had dropped from 47 to 18, and the city seemed to be entering a period of fragile peace. This 26-minute documentary looks at the source of the city’s violence and at two of the efforts to tame it: a police chief determined to forge a new model of policing, and a city agency dedicated to serving the young men at the center of the shooting.

Since the mid-2000s, homicides in Richmond have been driven by feuds between young men in North, Central and South Richmond. Shootings spark retaliations, which unleash further shootings. In 2006, the city hired a new police Chief, Chris Magnus, from Fargo, N.D., to transform the police department and repair relationships with the community. Magnus argues that community engagement is the key to preventing homicides. The film follows Richmond Police Officer Matt Stonebraker as he patrols Richmond’s Central District, trying to put Magnus’ policy into practice.

 Around the same time that Magnus was hired, residents organized a “tent city” and camped out to demand more action. In 2007, the city created the Office of Neighborhood Safety, or ONS, to focus exclusively on gun violence. The office reaches out directly to those young men whom the police believe are involved in shootings, but cannot prosecute for lack of evidence. The ONS then offers these young men a deal: the police know who they are, so they can risk arrest, or join the ONS. The ONS provides mentoring and a stipend, and helps them to meet basic life goals, like getting a driver’s license or GED, or accessing healthcare. In return, the ONS asks the young men to stop shooting – and to work with rivals from other neighborhoods. The filmmakers speak with ONS director Devone Boggan; mentors Sam Vaughn and Kevin Muccular; and three young men who have completed the fellowship, Dvondre Woodards, Rasheed Shepherd, and Eric Welch.

In March, 2013, 20-year-old Richmond resident Lincoln Plair was shot and killed, ending an eight-month ceasefire between the city’s feuding neighborhoods and raising fears of further shootings. The murder has highlighted the importance – and fragility – of the city’s quest to end gun violence.